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''A.yrjritfkt,lUh/'''bi i«,!^«»t,.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
OF
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
INCLUDING
THEIR PRIVATE LIFE,
GOVERNMENT, LAWS, ARTS, MANUFACTURES,
RELIGION, AND EARLY HISTORY ;
DERIVED FROJI A COMPAEISON OP
THE PAINTINGS, SCULPTURES, AND MONUMENTS STILL EXISTING
WITH THE ACCOUNTS OF ANCIENT AUTHORS.
3fnu0ttatetJ bg a^ratnincs of tfjoee Subjects*
By J. G. WILKINSON, F.R.S. M.R.S.L. &c.
AUTHOR OF "a GENERAL VIEW OF EGYPT, AND
TOPOGRAPHY OP THEBES," &C.
IN THREE VOLUMES.
VOL. in.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
MDCCCXXXVII.
London :
Printed by A. Spottiswoode,
New- Street- Square.
MGETT/CENM
CONTENTS
OF
THK THIRD VOLUME.
CHAPTER VIII.
Page
The Hyaena caught in a Trap. The Chase - - 2
Huntsmen, The Chasseur and his Attendants - - 3
Provisions and other Requisites carried by them. A large
Space in the Desert, enclosed by Nets. The Sportsman
in his Chariot - - - . . 4,
Nets of different Kinds, for various Purposes - - 6
Dresses of Huntsmen. Preserves for Game. Gamekeepers 7
Wild Animals kept, and brought up in the Preserves ; not
marked like Cattle - - - - - 8
Early Custom of Hunting throughout the East. The
Medes and Persians - - - - - II
Coursing in the open Plains. Mode of starting the Dogs 12
The Game when caught, how carried home - - 13
They often divided into Parties. The use of the Noose, or
Lasso - - - - - - 14
They trained Lions for Hunting - - - 16
No Appearance of the Leopard being used for this Purpose.
Mode of drawing the Bow in the Chase. The Animals
they hunted - - - 17
Some killed for their Skins. The Ostrich; its Eggs and
Plumes _ - . - - - 20
A 2
IV CONTENTS.
Animals often drawn with great Spirit. The wild Boar
not represented. Fanciful Animals - - - 21
The Sphinx ; always Male - - - - 23
Various Kinds of Sphinxes. The Animals still found in
Egypt. The Oryx, and other Antelopes - - 24?
The Wild Ox : Stag : Ibex - - - - 25
The Kebsh or wild Sheep. Porcupine. Bear unknown in
Egypt as well as the Otter - - - - 26
The Wolf small, generally found singly. M. Sonnini's
Error respecting the Wolf. Wolf Mummies at E'Sioot,
the ancient Lycopolis - - - - 27
The Hare. A Remark of Denon. The Wabber or Hyrax 28
The Hyaena and Wolf seldom found in the Interior of the
Desert. The Lion not in Egypt - - - 29
The Ichneumon ; its Hostility to Serpents. Thence vene-
rated. Story of its recovering from the Bite of poisonous
Snakes - - - - - 30
Easily tamed. Kept as a Cat. Its Food. The Wild Cat,
or Felis chaus. The Jerboa. The Giraffe - - 31
Various Breeds of Dogs. A Sort of Bitch not unlike our
Turnspit ; a Favourite in the House. The Fox Dog of an-
cient and modern Egypt. Pigs. Cattle of different Kinds 33
Horses and Asses - - - - - 34-
The Camel not represented; nor Fowls and Pigeons. Ar-
tificial Mode of rearing Poultry. Birds caught in Nets
and Traps by Fowlers - - - - 35
Fowling. Traps for catching Birds - - - 36
The Throw-stick. Bows and Slings not used for killing
Birds - - - - - 38
They went in Boats with a Party of Friends to the Jungles
which were the Resort of numerous Wild Fowl. A De-
coy Bird . _ - _ - 40
A Cat accompanied them, and was trained to catch the
Birds. Prejudice in favour of Cats and Dogs - 42
Dogs not favoured by the modern Egyptians. Cats well
treated - - - - - 44
The Clap Net, how placed. The Watcher - - 45
Sign to indicate Silence, not by the Finger to the Mouth 46
CONTENTS. V
Page
Mode of catching Ducks in Ponds. Birds chiefly caught
by them. Geese - - - - 47
Birds salted. Eggs taken to stock the Poultry Yard. Va-
rious Birds represented - - - - 49
List of the Birds most easily recognised in the Paintings - 51
Others not readily ascertained. Locusts, Butterflies, and
Beetles - - - - - 52
Fishing. Fish-ponds. Angling and spearing Fish - 53
Gentlemen fishing with the Line for Amusement. The
Rod. Poor People used the Line and Hook. Ground-
bait - - - - - - - 54
A Sort of Landing-net. The Drag-net ; pulled to the
Shore ; the Fish sent off to Market, or salted and dried 55
Mode of carrying large Fish. Salted and fresh Fish. The
former eaten by every one, except the Priests, on the
9th of Thoth - - - - - - 57
The Fish particularly esteemed for the Table. The Oxy-
rinchus, Phagrus or Eel, and Lepidotus, sacred - 58
Sacred Animals not equally honoured in different Parts of
Egypt (vide also Juv. Sat. 15.) The Bulti a favourite
Fish for the Table - - - - - 59
The Use ofjhe Bident Spear - - - - 60
Attendants strung the Fish, when caught, on the Stalk of
a Rush. The name Papyrus used for several Species of
the Cyperus - - - - - 61
The Abundance of Fish. The Lake Moeris - -63
The Revenue arising from the Fisheries of that Lake given
to the Queens - - - - 64
The Lake Mceris confounded with the Canal. Level of the
Lake - - - - - - 65
The Bathen of D'Anville. The Fish of the Lake still
farmed - - - - - -66
Extract from El Makrisi relative to the Fisheries - 67
Great Consumption of Fish in Egypt. Sluices and Ponds.
Chase of the Hippopotamus. Rare in Egypt, though
formerly said to frequent the Delta - - - 68
Use of its Hide. Corbag Whips ; used in former Times.
Mode of attacking the Hippopotamus - - 69
A 3
VI CONTKNTS.
Page
Diodorus's Account of the Hippopotamus Chase. The
Spear they used - - - - - 72
A Reel. Fish cured and sent to Market. Fish formerly
in the Nile - - - - - 73
Some Animals, once common in Egypt, now confined to
Ethiopia. The accidental Visits of Hippopotami in Egypt 74
Hippopotamus and Crocodile not eaten. The latter killed
by the Apollinopolites. Sacred Animals of various Parts
of Egypt - - - - - 75
Crocodiles kept and fed at a great Expense. Embalmed.
Grottoes of Maabdeh. The Skill and Boldness of the
Tentyrites in catching them - - - 76
The Crocodile timid. Its Mode of Attack. Its Sight
under Water - - - _ - 78
Two Varieties of the Crocodile in Egypt. The Trochilus 79
The Ichneumon. Probable Origin of the Story of the Tro-
chilus. Mode of catching the Crocodile - - 80
Serious Disputes of Towns, friendly and hostile to the
Crocodile - - - - - 81
CHAP. IX.
Fall of Egyptian Art. The Persian Invasion - - 83
Style of the Monuments of different Eras. The Scale
smaller at an early Period, and afterwards increased.
They possessed great mechanical Skill even at a very
remote Time _ _ _ _ - 85
Rules of Art prescribed, from veneration of Antiquity. This
Love of early Custom probably extended to their Style
of writing religious Works, as in other Nations - 87
Resemblance to Greek Taste in some ornamental Objects.
Glass an early Invention in Egypt - - - 88
Glass Bead bearing the Name of a Monarch who lived
1500 B.C. - - - - - - 90
The Use of Glass among the Ancients till lately disbelieved;
and many still continued to limit its Invention to the
Augustan Era - - - - 91
Use of Glass for Windows not suited to a hot Climate.
Glass Ware of Egypt famous - - - - 92
CONTENTS. VU
Page
A Quality of Glass, the Manufacture of which is unknown
to European Workmen. Mentioned also by Winkelmann.
Extracts from his Work - - - - 93
A Specimen of this Glass belonging to Captain Henvey,
R.N., described . _ - . - 96
The Manner in which the Parts of this Glass were put
together. Opinion of Paw, Goguet, and others, on the
Antiquity of Glass - - - - 97
Certain reputed Emeralds supposed to be Glass. Winkel-
mann thinks the Ancients used Glass more frequently
than the Moderns - - - - - 98
The Portland Vase. False Stones made by the Egyptians,
and much used. Pliny's Account of them - - 99
Difficulty in distinguishing false from real Stones. Many
ordinary Materials coated with a vitrified Composition,
and sold at a cheap Rate - - - - 100
An additional Proof of Refinement. Glass Beads and
Bugles, arranged like our Bead Purses, an Amusement of
the Egyptian Ladies. Principal Uses of Glass - 101
Glass Coffin. Granite Sarcophagi covered with a vitrified
Composition. Glass for Mosaic Work. Brilliancy of the
Colours, particularly the Blues and Reds - - 102
The Beauty of the Colours in Egyptian porcelain Cups. A
Sort of Glass-porcelain. The Colours penetrated into
the Ground, sometimes quite through - _ 103
In some Instances a Colour was put on afterwards. The
Handles and other Parts added. Many Glass Vases
broken in applying them. Knowledge of Chemistry, and
the use of metallic Oxides, as well as the Effect of Acids
on Colour .--... jq^.
Glass-cutting. The Diamond used for cutting Gems. In
ancient Times (as at the present day) it was thought a
pity to spoil a valuable Gem by engraving it - - 105
Use of Emery Powder. Glass Bottles inclosed in Wicker-
work and Papyrus Stalks, like the modern damagans and
Florence Oil Flasks. Chinese Bottles found at Thebes 106
Not valued by the Egyptians for their quality, which was
very inferior, but for their Contents, and afterwards ap-
A 4
Vlll CONTENTS.
Pago
plied to ordinary Purposes. Enamelling on Gold and
Silver - - - - _ - 109
Encaustic Painting. Bottles of Glass, Porcelain, Alabaster,
and other Materials - - - _ -110
Exported from Egypt. Murrhine Vases, supposed to have
been of Fluor Spar - - - - 111
False Murrhine made at Thebes and Memphis. No Lamps
or Lanterns represented in the Egyptian Paintings.
Fete of burning Lamps at Sais - - - 112
Supposed Indication of a Lantern. Manufacture of Linen 113
Exported. Woollen Stuffs. Panopolis famed for its
Woollen Manufactures. Use of Woollen Garments.
Quantity of Linen manufactured - - - 114*
Question respecting the Mummy Cloths being Linen, now
decided by the Microscope - - _ - 115
Some Difficulty regarding the Byssus of Herodotus, and the
Shash of the Hebrews. Cotton Cloth manufactured in
Egypt, and used by the Priests, and sacred Robes of the
Gods - - - - - 116
Much Cotton used for Household Purposes. The Egyptian
Looms, apparently rude. The simple Means employed
by Eastern Nations for the most delicate Work - - 118
Quality of the Egyptian fine Linen. Its Praise merited, as
proved by a Specimen in my Possession. The Mummy
Cloths. Mr. Thompson's Account of them - - 119
The Threads. Disparity of the Number in the Warp and
the Woof - " - - - - 121
Compared to the Muslin of India. Fringed Cloths. Sel-
vages - - - - - -122
Use of Indigo. Piece of Cloth from Thebes with broad
blue Border •■ - - - - 124
The Threads coloured before the Cloth was made. Blue
Borders of the Nubian Cloths at the present Day. Piece
of Linen from Thebes - - - - 125
The Carthamus Tinctorius * used for dyeing. The Number
* It is an opinion, among some persons in Egypt, that this plant was in-
troduced from India: there is, however, evidence of its liaving been grown
in Egypt at an ancient period, and seeds of it have been found with a mummy
brought from Thebes^
CONTENTS. IX
Page
of Threads in a Piece of fine Linen, which is also cover-
ed with Figures, beautifully drawn in Ink. Four Qualities
of Linen particularly noticed by Pliny. Exported - 126
Fineness of Egyptian Nets. Plin3''s Account of them, and
of the Corslet of Amasis - - - 127
Stuffs coloured in the Loom, besides those dyed and prin-
ted. Embroidered Work. The Gold Thread they used,
supposed to have been beaten out with the Hammer - 128
Coloured Dresses. Silver Thread. Wire Drawing - 129
Pliny's Account of the Use of Mordants in dyeing - 131
Knowledge of Chemistry. Spinning - - - 133
Men and Women used the Spindle. The Mode of weaving 134
The Process of preparing the Flax and its Uses - - 137
Pliny's Description of the Process. Combs for cleansing
the Flax. Borders and Fringes of Cloth - - 139
Smoothing and calendering Cloth. Carpets - - 141
Rope-making, and twisting Thongs of Leather - - 143
Nets. Netting-needles. Sieves - - - 145
The Papyrus. Various Kinds of Cyperus, included by an-
cient Writers under the name of Papyrus. Vide supra,
p. 61.62. - - - - - - 146
Paper made of it. Different Qualities ; some which are
found are more dried than others - - - 147
Mode of making Papyri. Some made as Specimens at Sy-
racuse in Sicily, where the Plant still grows - - 148
Pliny's Account of their Manufacture - - 149
Different Kinds. Pliny's Error in supposing Papyri not
made before the Time of Alexander - - - 150
Papyrus superseded by Parchment. Monopoly of the Pa-
pyrus rendered it expensive ... 151
Other cheaper Materials used for it. Use of various Sub-
stances to write upon, in early Times - - 152
The Arabs used Shoulder-bones of Sheep and Papyrus
Paper. They afterwards made fine Parchment. Cotton
and linen Paper, when invented. The Chinese long
used Linen Paper - - - - - 153
This Kind of Paper, when introduced into Europe. When
first made in England - - - - 154
X CONTENTS.
Page
Tanners and Leather-Cutters. Embossed Leather - 155
Use of Leather for various Purposes. Skins for holding
Water and Wine. Curing the Skins. Juice of a Plant
used by the modern Arabs - - - - 156
The Manner in which it is applied. Stretching and bending
Leather. The use of the semicircular Knife for cutting
Leather - - - - - -157
Their Tools very simple. Shops in an Egyptian Town - 158
Question if they put the Name of the Person and his Trade
over the Shop. Skins imported from other Countries,
owing to the great Consumption of Leather - - 161
Pods of the Acacia used for Tanning. Fullers - - 162
Potters. Clay kneaded with the Feet. The Wheel very
simple. iv'Ianufacture of Jars and Vases - - 163
Modern porous Vases of Qeneh. Livention of the Potter's
Wheel - - - - - 165
Errors of the Greeks in claiming the Credit of various
Inventions. Taste of the Egyptians in some Vases - 166
Their Taste not so good, or so general, as among the Greeks.
These last improved on what they borrowed from Egypt.
Carpenters and Cabinet-makers. Little Wood in Egypt.
Use of Sycomore Wood - - _ _ 167
Sycomore and Persea, sacred Trees. The Tamarisk. Sont
or Acacia Nilotica. Other Acacia Trees - - 168
Employment of foreign and rare Woods for Ornamental
Purposes. Painted Imitations of rare Woods. Usual
Tools of the Carpenter •■ - - -169
Furniture of their Rooms. Dovetailing. Mode of applying
two Planks of Wood - - - - 170
Use of the Saw and Adze. Those found in the Tombs - 171
The Drill. The Chisel. The Hatchet. Mode of saw-
ing Timber - - - - 172
Early Invention of Glue - _ - - 173
Boxes of various Forms. Veneered and painted - - 1 75
Wheelwrights ; Coffin-Makers and Coopers. Subdivision
of Labour. The Plaustrum, or travelling Car. One In-
stance of it at Thebes - - - - 178
An Ethiopian Princess coming to Thebes in a Plaustrum 180
CONTENTS. XI
Page
Palanquins, and Canopies of Wood. Public Pounders,
as now in Cairo - - - - - 180
Barrels and wooden Measures for Grain - - 182
Makers of Coffins. The Embalraers and others connected
with the funeral Ceremonies. Boat Builders - - 184
Boats of Rushes and Osiers. Boats at the Cataracts. Pa-
pyrus Boats mentioned by ancient Writers - - 1 85
Pitched. The Papyrus Rush used for making small Boats
and other Purposes - - - - 186
Other Kinds of Boats. Boats on the Euphrates. Boats of
Burden on the Nile, mentioned by Herodotus - - 187
These Boats of Burden far better built than Herodotus
would lead us to suppose - - - - 189
Ships of War fitted out by Sesostris ; probably used before
to protect the Trade of the Red Sea. Pliny supposes
Ships first built by Danaus. Shown to have been used
by the Egyptians long before - - - 190
The Obligations we owe to M. Champollion - - 192
Various Boats on the Nile. Some with large Cabins, with
and without Masts - - - - - 195
The Sail used in ascending the River, and taken down on
descending - - - - - 196
Large Boats. Error respecting a Boat represented at
Eilethyas - - - - - 197
Rudders ; how acting. Oars. Man at the Head of the
Boat with a Pole - - - - - 198
Very little Keel in the Nile Boats, in order to avoid the
Sandbanks. Sails - - - - - 199
Cabins. Boats painted. An Eye on the Rudder, and at
the Prow - - - - 200
Flag and Standard. Resemblance to the Boats of
India - - - - - - - 201
No Beaks to Ships of War. Forecastle at the Head for
the Archers. Ships of War. Wooden Bulwark along
the Gunnel to protect the Rowers ... 202
Advancing to attack an Enemy's Vessel. The Sail raised
by Ropes - - - - - 203
Having cleared for Action the Rowers pulled, and endea-
Xll CONTENTS.
Page
voured to strike the Enemy on the Side. A Lion's Head
on the Prow ... _ 204
A large Boat on the Nile with forty-four Oars, of peculiar
Construction - . . . _ 205
Braces for turning the Yard. Mode of Steering. Ar-
rangement of the Oars. One Mast and one Sail - 206
Model of a Boat at Berlin, showing the Position of the
Rowers ; the different Parts and Arrangement of the
Boat. Large Cabins in Boats of Burden. Cleanliness of
their Boats _ . _ . . 207
The Mast probably of Firwood. Ribs of Acacia or Sont.
Mode of fixing the Mast - - - -208
In Ships of War the Sail had only an upper Yard. In Nile
Boats a lower one also. Much Trouble to loosen the
Sail. Pulleys. Yards large . _ . 209
Sails painted. The Phcenix and other Devices - - 210
Fancy Devices. The Phoenix very appropriate. Edges
of the Sail. Some Vessels very large - - - 211
Origin of Navigation. Ships of Burden originally
Rafts - . _ . . - 212
Sailed round Africa. Foundation of Alexandria, and inter-
course with India by the Red Sea - - - Sl-i
The Use of Tin at a very early Period - - - 215
Taken by the Phcenicians from Britain, and previously from
other Countries - - - - 216
Productions of India found in Egypt of a very early Period.
First mention of Tin _ _ - . 217
The Islands of the Cassiterides. Care of the Phoenicians
to conceal the Place whence they obtained Tin - - 218
Tin where found. Spain to the Phoenicians what America
was to the Spaniards - - - 219
Goguet's Opinion respecting the burning of the Golden
Calf. Use of Gold - - - - 221
Hieroglyphic of Gold. The Mode of working Gold. Cru-
cibles - - - - - - 224
Early Manufacture of gold Ornaments. Shield of Achilles
mentioned by Homer. The precious Metals wrought in
Egypt at a very early Time - . - _ 225
CONTENTS. Xlll
Page
Gold Mines of Egypt. Their Position ascertained, and
lately visited .__--- 227
Diodorus's Account of the Mode of working the Mines, and
the Cruelty exercised towards those condemned to that
Labour _ - - - - - 231
Gilding. Gold Leaf at first thick. Some thick Leaf con-
tinued to be used long after a thinner Kind was made - 231'
Gilding known at a very early Time. Mode of beating
the Leaf. The Invention of a Method by the Germans
in the 17th Century - - - _ . 235
Monuments, as well as small Objects, gilded by the Egyp-
tians. Use of Gold and Silver used for Money - 237
Value of Money ascertained by Weight. Ptolemies coined
Money. Aryandes, Governor of Egypt under Cambyses
and Darius, the first who coined Money there. Money,
when first stamped _ - _ _ _ 238
Weights and Measures long known in Egypt. The Balance
for weighing Gold - - - . _ 239
Principle of the large Egyptian Scales. No Steel-yard - 240
The Plummet. Use of Copper and Bronze. Known before
Iron. Iron, when supposed to have been first employed * 241
Argument of its Use from Homer. Iron Rings of late
Date ---_--. 242
Iron in little Estimation in the Days of Lycurgus, 884 b. c.
The Jews had two Kinds of Iron. Mentioned as early
as the Time of Job and Moses. Arguments against its
early Use ----_. 243
Bronze preferred long after Iron was commonly known.
An Argument to show Bronze to have been known in
Greece before Iron - - - _ . 245
Still uncertain. No Proof derived from Iron not being
found, or from the Use of Bronze Tools by the Egyp-
tians. Iron Mine discovered in Egypt - - 246
Representation of Iron in the Tombs of Thebes. Some
* Colonel Howard Vyse has discovered a piece of iron in the midst of the
masonry of the Great Pyramid, which he thinks could only have been placed
there when that monument was erected.
XIV CONTENTS.
Page
Implements of Husbandry of Wood. Wooden Hoes
found - - - - - - - 24-7
Mode of sculpturing Granite. Question respecting it and
the Use of Steel - - - - - 249
Difficulty now experienced in cutting Granite. Erroneous
Notion respecting Granite having been softer when
sculptured by the Egyptians - - - - 250
Stunning the Stone, a Method of which we may also avail
ourselves at present, but not found sufficient to account
for the Facility they appear to have had. Possibility of
their having used Emery Powder in sculpturing or en-
graving Granite - - - - - 251
This could not be used for cutting the Stone itself. Bronze
Chisel found at Thebes - - - - 252
Skill in compounding Metals. Elasticity of Bronze
Blades - - - - - - 253
Bronze Statues, when first cast. The Process not repre-
sented _ . - - - . 254
Pausanias thinks the Art of casting Metal a late Disco-
very - - - - - - - 255
Bronze Statues in Etruria. Gold smelted in Egypt at a
very early Period. Damaskeening . _ _ 256
Soldering Metals - - - - - 258
Stone Knives and Tools used in early Times - - 259
Stone-tipped Arrows. Vide Vol. I. p. 309, 310. Private
Citizens unarmed ... - . 260
The short Time elapsed between the Deluge and the build-
ing of the Pyramids. Ethiopic Stone sometimes signified
Flint - - 261
Stone Knives found . . . _ . 262
CHAP. X.
Style of Art. Bas-relief - - - - 264
Deficiency of Style. No Expression given to the Features.
Drapery . . „ - - 265
Every Part of a Picture conceived by itself. Conventional
Style - - - - - - - 266
CONTENTS. XV
Page
No Change in Character after the Roman Conquest ; merely
a Style deteriorated. Principal Figure in an Egyptian
Painting. Greater Licence in Paintings of the Tombs.
The Battle Scenes - - - - - 267
The Figure mechanically formed ; the Position of the
Parts alone altered to give it Action. Animals - 268
Simple Mode of representing Figures in profile •• - 269
Bas-relief earliest Style of Sculpture, Progi-ess of Art - 270
rpa(po), to write, draw, engrave, and describe. Want of
Letters. Funereal Pillars. Poetry and Songs - 271
Sculpture dates before Architecture as an Art - - 272
Statues originally rough Pillars. Arms and Legs united at
first - - - - - - - 273
No Life in Egyptian Statues. Certain Postures. The
Feet - - - - - - - 274
Reverence for ancient Forms. Antinous made to conform
to the Egyptian Style . _ . _ 275
Changes in Style at dffferent Epochs, but not of Charac-
ter - - - - - - - 276
Sculptures and Paintings at Beni Hassan and other Places 277
Suphis, and other early Kings, whose Names occur - 278
Contemporary Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt. Menes
sole Monarch of the Country _ - - - 283
The nomen and prcenomen, Papi and Apappus - - 284
Style of ancient Epochs, in the Time of Suphis, Osirtasen,
and the 18th Dynasty - - - - . 285
The third Remeses ; the Encouragement of Art in his
Reign _ - _ - - . 286
The Profusion of painted Sculpture on an Egyptian Temple.
Processions represented at Medeenet Haboo - - 287
Coronation Ceremony - . - - _ 289
Historical Subjects. Battle Scenes. Prisoners : and Hands
of the killed cut off - - - - - 291
Return, and Triumph of the King. Sculptures outside the
Building - - .... 292
March of the Army. The King accompanied by a Lion.
Attack of the Rebo. Their Defeat - - - 293
Returns of the Enemy's killed, and Account of the Arms
XVI CONTENTS.
Page
taken from them. Advance of the Army continued.
Attack another Enemy _ - _ - 294
Defeat them. Their Plaustra, or Carts. The King, pass-
ing through a Morass, is attacked by Lions. The Army
and its Allies _ . - . - 295
The Attack of a Fleet on a Lake, or Sea. Offerings to
the Gods - - - - - - 296
Siege and Capture of fortified Towns. All the Subjects
coloured __.._. 297
Coloured Architecture. Colour found also on Greek Mo-
numents __...- 298
Columns, even in Egyptian Buildings, frequently white.
The Stone covered with a thin Coat of Stucco, to re-
ceive the Paint. Egyptian Paint mixed with water. The
Colours they used. Analysis of the Green, Blue, Red,
Black, Yellow, and White - - - - 301
Sculptures in Relief and Intaglio. Epochs when the
two Styles were [ adopted. Relieved Intaglio of Re-
meses III. - - - - - S04«
Fresh Impulse given to Art by the Kings of the 26th
Dynasty. Error of Winkelmann respecting the date of
the Isiac Table . . . _ . S06
Fall of Egyptian Art. Sculptures of the Ptolemaic Era - 307
The Style of the Grottoes at Beni Hassan - - - 309
Origin of the Doric Column .... 310
Painting on Board. Egyptian Pictures - - - 311
Earliest Paintings . - . . _ 312
Style of Egyptian Drawing. The Walls ruled in Squares.
Conventional Method ..... 313
No Perspective. Pencils and Brushes for Colouring - 314-
Painters and Scribes. Their writing Implements - 315
Architecture. Bricks and Antiquity of the Arch - - 316
Brick Pyramids with vaulted Chambers. Question respect-
ing the Era of Asychis and Any sis - - - 317
Stone Arch at Saqqara. Crude Brick Arches at Thebes 319
False Arches at Abydus and Thebes ... 320
Stones hewn from Quarries. Limestone first employed for
Building -..-._ 322
CONTENTS. XVll
Page
Sandstone of Silsilis afterwards used and preferred.
Extent of the Quarries. Mode of opening a new - 323
Quarry ----- - _
Mode of transporting Blocks of Stone. Large Stones
dragged by Men - - - - - 324
Large Colossus, on a Sledge, at El Bersheh - - - 325
The Colossus, how fastened. Large long Shafts of Stone,
at Fateereh. Small Blocks sent by Water down the
River - - - - - - 327
Obelisks. — Large ponderous Masses of Stone, transported
from the Cataracts to Thebes - - - 329
Statue of Remeses at the Memnonium. Monolith of Sais - 330
Monoliths at Tel-et-mai (properly Tel e'Tmai), and at
Buto. Skill of the Egyptians in raising as well as drag-
ging great Weights - - - - 331
Obelisk remaining in a Quarry at E'Sooan. Obelisks men-
tioned by Pliny - - - - - 332
Their Removal to Rome, prompted by Vanity. Obelisk
of " Ramises," according to Pliny - - - 333
Pliny's Description of a Method of transporting Obelisks
from a Quarry. No Insight given by the Sculptures into
their mechanical Knowledge - - - - 334
Diodorus's erroneous Notion respecting the Invention and
Use of Machines - - - . - 335
Sculpturing and polishing large Colossi, surrounded by
Scaffolding. Large Blocks, how cut from the Quarries - 337
The Invention of Bellows - - - - 338
Siphons long used in Egypt - - - - 340
Origin of Geometry - - - . . 342
The Sundial, and Division of the Day into twelve Hours.
Few Inventions indicated. Objects Buried with the
Dead ; some valuable, some very inferior - - 343
Their Costume not well defined. Dresses of the People 344
Fringes. Woollen Cloak. Shirts. Dresses of Priests and
Persons of Rank - - . . . 347
Costume of Princes. Princes considered Infants. Leo-
pard's-skin worn by Priests - - - - 350
VOL. III. a
XVIU CONTENTS.
Page
The King's Dress. A peculiar Apron. His Head-dress
and Crown - - - - --351
Crown worn in Battle and in the Temple. Wigs, not ill-
suited to a hot Climate ----- 353
Wigs, how made. Found at Thebes, and preserved in the
British and Berlin Museums - . . 355
Shaving the Beard and Head - ... 357
The Priests particular in their Habits of Cleanliness. Ab-
horrence of Foreigners - - . . „ 358
Barbers. When introduced at Rome. Fondness of the
Greeks for long hair. Retained to the present Day - 359
Heads of Egyptian Children shaved. Hardness of their
Skulls - - - - - - - 360
Vows for Children. Caps. Women wore their own Hair.
A Kind of Wig used by the Romans - - 361
False Beards. Beards appropriated to Individuals of Rank,
to the Kings, and the Gods. Dresses of Children - 362
A Bulla, or Charm. The Roman bulla. Ladies paid
great Attention to their Sandals - - - 364'
Various Kinds of Sandals . - . - 366
Shoes, or low Boots. Dresses of Women - - 367
Slaves and Servants did not wear the same Dress as La-
dies. Ladies' Hair plaited - - - - 369
Short Hair at the Side of the Face. Earrings - - 370
Various Forms of Earrings. Rings. The Ring-Finger.
The Left Hand peculiarly privileged - - - 371
Worn also on the Thumb. Simple and Ornamented
Rings. Silver Rings. Rare Bronze and Iron Rings - 372
Porcelain Rings. Scaraboei. Signets. Devices on Rings.
Gold Anklets, or Bangles, and Bracelets - - - 373
Bracelet of Thothmes III. Rich Necklaces - - 375
Gold Chains. A sort of Torques. Various Patterns. De-
vices on Scarabaei, and Rings. Various Stones set - 376
The Toilet. Kohl, or Collyrium, for the Eyes. Ointments 378
Custom of Anointing the Hair among the Ethiopians.
Combs. Staining the Eyelids with Kohl. - - 380
The Jews and Romans had the same Custom. Kohl Bot-
tles found - - - - - - 382
CONTENTS. XIX
Page
Pins and Needles - - - - _ 383
Bronze Needles. Metal Mirrors. - - - 384
Walkingsticks ... - - 386
Baths. A Lady represented in a Bath - - - 388
Doctors for various Complaints. Paid by Government.
Punished for improper Treatment of Patients - - 390
Attended without Fees on a Journey, and on Military Ser-
vice. Attention of the Egyptians to Health. The Use
of Preventives. Many Drugs used by them - - 391
Their numerous Medicines mentioned by Jeremiah, and in
Homer. Number of Physicians in Egypt. Bodies ex-
amined after Death . - - - - 392
Magic and Dreams. Exvotos for their Recovery. Cura-
tors of the Sacred Animals travelled through the Coun-
try in Quest of Alms, a Custom still retained by the
Servants of the Shekh's Tombs - - - - 394,
Models of the restored Part, dedicated in a Temple.
Travellers who passed by a Temple wrote a Prosku-
nema, or Adoration - _ . . . 395
Its complete Formula. Contained sometimes a good Wish
for the Reader. Early Study of Medicine in Egypt - 396
The Embalmers probably Members of the Medical Pro-
fession . _ . _ . . . 397
a "t
LIST AND EXPLANATION
OF THE
PLATES, WOOD-CUTS, AND VIGNETTES OF VOL. III.
Frontispiece, or Plate 17. Capitals of columns, and piece of
glass belonging to Captain Henvey, R.N., described in
p. 96.
CHAP. VIII.
Page
1. Vignette G. The palace-temple of Remeses the Great,
generally called the Memnonium at Thebes, taken
during the inundation. In the centre, near the front
columns of the area, lies the colossal statue of Remeses;
and above the water's surface, to the right of a small
bush, appear parts of the fallen statues of Amunoph III.
2. Wood-cut, No. 318. Hyaena caught in a trap, and carried
upon a pole by two men.
8. No. 319. Men bringing young animals to stock the pre-
serves.
9. No. 320. Gazelles and other animals belonging to the
preserves. Fig. 2. Gazelle with its young.
10. No. 321. Men heating irons to mark cattle.
13. No. 322. A huntsman carrying home an oryx, with his
coupled dogs. Reduced from a cast which I have of
the subject.
14. No. 323. Bringing home the live game.
LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES, ETC. XXI
15. Wood-cut, No. 324. Catching a gazelle with the noose, or
lasso.
No. 325. Catching a wild ox with the noose.
16. No. 326. Hunting with a lion.
18. No. 327. A chasseur shooting with his dog.
19. No. 328. Animals from the sculptures.
22. No. 329. A chase in the desert.
23. No. 330. Monsters, or fanciful animals, from the paint-
ings.
32. No. 331. Various kinds of dogs. Fig. 1. A dog often
represented accompanying the master of a villa, or his
steward. Fig. 3. From Beni Hassan, which frequently
occurs in the time of Osirtasen. Vide also some hounds
in wood-cuts, Nos. 322. and 329.
34. No. 332. Pigs, which are rarely seen in the sculptures.
37. No. 333. Fishing and fowling. Vide references in wood-
cut.
38. No. 334. Bird traps.
39. No. 335. A sportsman using the throw-stick.
41. No. 336. Fowling scene and spearing fish with the bi-
dent. Vide references in wood-cut.
42. No. 337. The use of the throw-stick.
46. No. 338. Clap nets.
48. No. 339. Some of the birds of Egypt.
50. No. 340. Other birds.
52. No. 341 . An Egyptian gentleman fishing.
53. No. 342. Fishing with ground bait.
55. No. 343. A sort of landing net.
56. No. 344. Bringing fish, and opening them, preparatory
to their being salted.
57. No. 345. Another mode of carrying large fish.
70. No. 346. Attendant carrying a whip, or corbag, made of
the hippopotamus's hide.
71. Plate 15. Chase of the hippopotamus. Various birds in the
jungle, and fish in the river.
72. No. 347. Spear used in the chase of the hippopota-
mus.
73. No. 348. A reel held by an attendant.
XXll LIST AND EXPLANATIOM
CHAP. IX.
Page
82. Vignette H. Wooden boats of the Nile. A whirlwind of
sand in the distance.
89. Wood-cut, No. 349. Glass blowers.
90. No. 34'9«. Glass bottles, and a bead with the name of
an ancient monarch.
107. No. 350. Glass bottles covered with wicker-work, and
papyrus, and a piece of cloth with a blue border.
108. No. 351. Chinese bottles found at Thebes.
113. No. 352. A guard apparently carrying a lantern.
134. No. 353. Men engaged in spinning and weaving.
135. No. 354. A piece of cloth on a frame, and a loom.
136. No. 355. Spindles found in Egypt.
138. No. 356. Process of preparing the flax, and making it
into twine and cloth.
140. No. 357. A wooden comb found with some tow.
No. 358. Netting needle and wooden plane.
144. No. 359. Cutting and twisting thongs of leather, and
carpenters.
159. No. 360. Currier holding a strap of leather with his toes
while cutting it.
160. No. 361. Shoemakers, and men polishing a column.
162. No. 362. Fullers.
164. No. 363. Potters making earthenware vases.
174. No. 364. Veneering, and the use of glue.
176. No. 365. Different boxes.
179. No. 366. An Ethiopian princess travelling in a plaustrum.
181. No. 367. Pounding various substances in stone mortars.
183. No. 368. Bandaging mummies, and making the cases.
195. No. 369. Boats for carrying cattle and goods on the Nile.
196. No. 370. A boat with the mast taken down, while de-
scending the stream.
203. No. 371. War galley: the sail being pulled up during
action.
205. No. 372. Large boat, with a peculiar sail and mast.
208. No. 373. Boat of the Nile : showing how the sail was
fastened to the yards, and the nature of the rigging.
OF THE PLATES, ETC. XXUl
Page
211. Plate 16. Boats with painted sails, from the tomb of
Remeses III.
222. Wood-cut, No. S?^. Goldsmiths, at Beni Hassan.
223. No. 374 a. Goldsmiths, at Thebes.
224. No. 375. Blowpipe, and small fireplace with cheeks to
reflect the heat.
226. No. 376. Golden baskets, represented in the tomb of
Remeses III.
248. No. 377. Wooden hoes.
258. No. 378. Vases ornamented with plates of metal.
262. No. 379. Flint knives.
CHAP. X.
263. Vignette I. Tomb of Saqqara, erected with stone, of the
time of Psamaticus II.
278. Wood-cut, No. 380. Name of Shofo, Suphis, or Cheops ;
and of the city of Memphis.
280. No. 381. Names of other ancient kings.
282. No. 382. Figures of kings wearing the crowns of Upper
and Lower Egypt ; either two distinct persons, or the
same king, with his prcenomen and nomen.
309. No. 383. Section of one of the southern grottoes of Beni
Hassan.
310. No. 384. Section of one of the northern grottoes of Beni
Hassan, and origin of the Doric capital.
311. No. 385. Artists painting on board, and colouring a
figure.
315. No. 386. A Scribe writing on a tablet, with his case for
holding writing materials.
321. No. 387. A scribe with his pen behind his ear.
No. 388. Vaulted rooms and arched doorway of crude
brick, at Thebes. Imitations of arches, and commence-
ment of a quarry.
324. No. 389. Removal of a stone, represented at the quarries
of El Maasara.
328. No. 390. Mode of transporting a large colossus.
335. No. 391. Masons levelling and squaring a stone.
XXIV LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES, ETC.
Page
336. Wood-cut, No. 392. Large granite colossus, which men
are sculpturing, polishing, and painting.
339. No. 393. The use of bellows.
34.1. No. 394. Siphons.
345. No. 395. Men's dresses.
348. No. 396. Dresses of priests.
349. No. 397. Princess and children.
352. No. 398. Dress of the king.
354. No. 399. Head-dresses of kings and individuals.
355. No. 400. Front and back of an Egyptian wig in the British
Museum.
356. No. 401. An Egyptian wig, in the Berlin Museum.
363. No. 402. Women carrying their children.
365. No. 403. Shoes, or low boots, and sandals.
366. No. 404. Sandals.
368. No. 405. Dresses of women.
369. No. 406. Head-dress of a lady, from a mummy-case.
372. No. 407. Hands of a wooden figure, showing how rings
were worn by women.
374. No. 408. Rings, signets, bracelets, and earrings, disco-
vered in Egypt.
377. No. 409. Necklaces, principally in the Leyden Museum.
381. No. 410. Wooden combs found at Thebes.
383. No. 411. Boxes, or bottles, for holding kohl, used in
staining the eyelids.
384. No. 412. Needles, pins, and earrings.
385. No. 413. Metal Mirrors.
386. No. 414. Other Metal Mirrors.
No. 415. Another, with the head of a Typhonian
monster.
No. 416. Walking-sticks. [sticks.
387. No. 417. Priests and other persons of rank walking with
389. No. 417 a. A lady in the bath.
393. No. 418. Doctors and patients,^^. 1. andjf?^. 4. adminis-
tering medicine to patients.
395. No. 419. Exvotos. Models of a hand and ears dedi-
cated to a deity.
398. Topographical Plan of the Pyramids of Geezeh.
ERRATA IN VOL. IH,
Page 62, note 1. for "grown there, which is evidently," read "grown there,
wliich (however erroneous) is evidently."
C8. note § for "Fans" read "Faras. "
104. line 5. from the bottom, for " same process," read "same means,"
237. note 5, for "torn. i. 1. i. c. 1." read " tom. i. 1. ii. c. 4."
238, one line from bottom, after "tlieirnso" jnit inverted commas,
2G4, line I.-^, for " Duto," lead " Plato. "
IN THE WOOD-CUT.S.
263, Vignette. The stones forming the arch arc made too thin.
XXIV LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES, ETC.
Page
336. Wood-cut, No. 392. Large granite colossus, which men
are sculpturing, polishing, and painting.
339. No. 393. The use of bellows.
34.1. No. 394. Siphons.
345. No. 395. Men's dresses.
348. No. 396. Dresses of priests.
349. No. 397. Princess and children.
352. No. 398. Dress of the king.
354. No. 399. Head-dresses of kings and individuals.
355. No. 400. Front and back of an Ep-vntian vvio- in the British
monster.
No. 416. Walking-sticks. [sticks.
387. No. 417. Priests and other persons of rank walking with
389. No. 417 o. A lady in the bath.
393. No. 418. Doctors and patients, yy^/. 1. and Jiff. 4. adminis-
tering medicine to patients.
395. No. 419. Exvotos. Models of a hand and ears dedi-
cated to a deity.
398. Topographical Plan of the Pyramids of Geezeh.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
OF THE
ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
Vignette G. The palace-temple of Remesesthe Great, generally called the Memiionium,
at Thebes, during the inundation.
CHAPTER VIIL
The CJiase. — Animals. — Dogs. — Fowlers — Fishermen, —
Hippopotamus. — Crocodile. — The Tentyrites.
All classes of the Egyptians delighted in the
sports of the field, and the peasants deemed it a
duty as well as an amusement, to hunt and destroy
the hyaena, and those animals which were enemies
of the fields or flocks, and they shot them with the
bow, caught them in traps, or by whatever means
their dexterity and ingenuity could suggest. For
though the hygena is a carnivorous animal, it is not
VOL. HI. 15
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
Hycena caught in a trap.
Thebes.
less hostile to the crops than to the flocks, when
pressed with hunger*, and the ravages they are
known to commit in the fields among the Indian
corn and other produce, make the peasants of
modern Egypt as anxious as their predecessors to
destroy them, whenever they have an opportunity,
or the courage to attack them.
CHASE.
Plato t reckons the huntsmen as one of the
castes of the Egyptians ; and though, as I have
already observed, persons who followed this occu-
pation may have constituted a particular body, or a
minor subdivision of one of the castes, we are not
to suppose, that the sports of the field were con-
fined to those who gained their livelihood by the
chase ; or that the wealthy classes of Egyptians
were averse to an amusement so generally wel-
comed in all countries. Indeed, the sculptures of
* I have already noticed this in Egypt and Thebes, p. 243, note,
-j- Plato in Timaeo, near the beginning.
CHAP. Vlir. HUNTSMEN. ,i
Thebes, Beni Hassan, and other phices, assure us,
that they took particular deHght in chasing the
wild animals, kept in their preserves for this pur-
pose, and even in the more laborious task of fol-
lowing them in the extensive tracts of the wide
desert, which stretch to the east and west of the
valley of the Nile. On these occasions they were
attended by several huntsmen, whom they kept in
their service, to attend upon the hounds, to direct
the hunt, to assist in catching the larger animals
with a noose, to carry darts and hunting poles*,
to arrange the netst, and, in short, to manage all
matters connected with the chase.
When the chasseur was a person of consequence,
numerous attendants accompanied him, not merely
in the capacity of beaters, to rouse and turn the
game, or to carry it when killed, but for various
purposes connected with his immediate wants or
comforts while in the field ; some brought with
them a fresh supply of arrows, a spare bow, or
other requisites for remedying accidents; and some
carried a stock of provisions for his use. These were
borne upon the usual yoke, across the shoulders,
and consisted of a skin of water, and jars placed
* The Roman venabula were of the thickness of a spear, armed
with a sharp iron point, of moderate length, and used as a defensive
weapon against the attack of a wild beast, being held in a shmting direc-
tion to receive it. J. Pollux, v. 4.
t Virg. iEn. iv. 131.:
" Retia rara, plagae, lato venabula ferro,
Massylique ruunt equites, et odora canum vis."
And Hor. 1 Ep. vi. 58. : —
" Pjagas, venabula, servos."
This person was called by the Greeks, SiKTvaywyog. J. Pollux, v. 4.
B 2
77
4> THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
in wicker baskets, probably containing bread,
meats, or other provisions. The skins used for
carrying water were precisely the same as those of
the present day, being of a goat, or a gazelle,
stripped from the body by a longitudinal opening
at the throat ; the legs serving as handles, to which
ropes for slinging tiiem were attached ; and a
soft pendent tube of leather sewed to the throat,
in the place of the head, formed the mouth of
the water-skin, which was secured by a thong
fastened round it.
Sometimes a space of ground, of considerable
extent, was enclosed with nets, into which the
animals were driven by beaters ; and as this is
frequently shown by the sculptures to have been
in a hilly country, it is evident that the scenes of
those amusements were in the desert, where they
probably extended nets across the narrow vallies,
or torrent beds, which lie between the rocky hills,
difficult of ascent to animals closely pressed by
dogs. This is indeed the only way in which a per-
son, mounted on horseback * or in a chariot, could
follow, or get within reach of them with the bow ;
and that some animals, particularly antelopes, when
closely pressed, fear to take a steep ascent, is a
fact well known to the Arabs ; and I have myself,
* As in Virgil, JEn. iv. 151. : —
" Poslquam altos ventiim in montes, atque invia lustra ;
Ecce ferae, saxi dejectae vertice, caprae
Decurrere jugis : alia de parte patentes
Transmittunt cursu canipos, atque agmina cervi
Pulverulenta fuga glomerant, niontesque relinquunt.
At puer Ascanius vicdiis in valUbics acri
Gaudet equo : jamque hos cursu, jam praeterit illos.'
CHAP. VIII. MODE OF HUNTING. O
when following them with dromedaries in the same
valleys, observed that gazelles preferred doubling,
and swiftly passing between their pursuers, to the
risk of sloAvly ascending the eminence to which
they had been driven.
The spots thus enclosed were usually in the
vicinity of the water brooks*,' to which they were
in the habit of repairing in the morning and
evening : and having awaited the time when they
went to drink, and ascertained it by their recent
tracks on the accustomed patht, the hunters dis-
posed the nets, occupied proper positions for ob-
serving them unseen t, and gradually closed in
upon them. Such are the scenes partially por-
trayed in the Egyptian paintings, where long nets
are represented surrounding the space, wherein
the chasseur and his attendants pursue the game,
either on foot or mounted in a chariot : and the
presence of hyaenas, jackals, and various wild
beasts unconnected with the sport, is intended
to show that they have been accidentally enclosed
within the line of nets, which, from embracing an
extensive tract, necessarily included within its range
the resort of these, as well as of the antelopes and
other animals, of which they were in quest.
* " As the hart panteth after the water brooks," Ps. xlii. i. The
Hebrew name is '''N Ail, evidently the same as the Egyptian QjcyA
and the Arabic \j\, which I believe to be the Oryx.
•j- My long sojourn with the Arabs in the desert, and my freijuent
visits to the springs for the same purpose, have explained to me the
methods adopted by the ancient Egy[)tian chasseurs.
J The person whose business it was to watch the nets, was called
by the Greeks Xn'o-rr/yf, o T(t fjUTrinrorra {TriTKoti/u t'of. J. Pollux, v. 4.
B 3
6 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
The same custom of surrounding a spot, which
they intended to beat, seems to have been adopted
by the Romans; and Virgil* represents .^neas and
Dido repairing to a wood at break of day, after the
attendants had surrounded it with a temporary
fence, to enclose the game. This is further con-
firmed by the description, given by Julius Pollux,
of the various contrivances employed in hunting ;
and he makes an evident distinction between the
nets for enclosing a large space, and those for stop-
ping gaps or openings, and other purposes.
The long net, called ^ixrvg^ was furnished with
several ropes, and was supported on forked poles,
varying in length, to correspond with the inequali-
ties of the ground over which it extended, and this
was so contrived as to enclose any space, by cross-
ing hills, valleys, or streams, and encircling woods,
or whatever might present itself; a description
fully applicable to those exhibited in the Egyptian
paintings t ; smaller nets, called svo(na, for stopping-
gaps, are also described by the same author ; and
a circular snare TroSay^a, set round with wooden and
iron nails, and attached by a rope to a log of wood,
which was used for catching deer, so nearly re-
sembles one still made by the Arabs, and sup-
})osed to be an old Egyptian invention, that we
* " Venatum iEneas, unaque miserrima Dido,
In nemus ire parant, ubi primos crastinus ortus
Extulerit Titan, radiisqiie retexcrit orhem.
His ego nigrantem commista grandine nimbuni,
Dmn trepidant alae, sa/tiisque indngine cingrtnf,
Desupcr infundam." Virg, Mn. iv. 1 17.
f Vide J. Poll. Onom. v. +.
CHAP. Vin. PRESERVES FOR GAME. J
may conclude it was common to several ancient
people.
In many instances, the dresses of the attendants
and huntsmen were, as Julius Pollux recommends,
" not white, nor of a brilliant hue, lest they should
be seen at a distance by the animals," but of a
suppressed colour, and reaching only a short way
down the thigh * ; being shorter even than those he
mentions, which extended to the knee ; and the
horses of the chariots were divested of the fea-
thers and showy ornaments used on other occa-
sions.
Besides the portions of the open desert and the
vallies, above alluded to, which were enclosed
by the Egyptians, during their hunting excursions,
the parks and preserves on their own domains in the
valley of the Nile, though of comparatively limited
dimensions, offered ample space and opportunity
for indulging in the amusement of the chase ; and
there, as in the theriotrophia of the Romans, a
quantity of game was kept, among which may be
enumerated the wild goat, oryx, and gazelle.
They had also fishponds and spacious vivaria^ set
apart for keeping geese and other wild fowl, which
they fattened for the table.
It was the duty of the huntsmen or the gamekeep-
ers they employed, to superintend the preserves ;
and at proper periods of the year, when the young
animals could be obtained, they sought them, and
added to the stock, which continued also to increase,
* Vide woodcut, No. 319. It was customary with the Egyptians, on
ordinary occasions, to wear a kcit reaching to the knee.
B 4
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. VIII.
No. 319. Bringing young animals to stock the preserves. To7nb near the Pyramids.
independent of those occasional additions, through
the care taken in encouraging their propagation, by
a judicious regard to their habits. And this is con-
firmed by the numerous flocks of gazelles and other
wild animals, represented in the tombs, among the
possessions of the deceased, of which the scribes
are seen writing an account, at the command of the
steward, who waits to present it, with an annual
census of his property, to the owner of the estate.
Being fed within pastures enclosed with fences,
they were not marked in any particular way like
the cattle, which, being let loose, in open meadows,
and frequently allowed to mix with the herds of
the neighbours, required some distinguishing sign
by which they might be recognised ; and were,
therefore, branded on the shoulder with a hot iron,
probably engraved with the owner's name. This is
distinctly shown in the paintings of Thebes, where
the cattle are represented lying on the ground with
their feet tied, while one person heats an iron on
CHAP. VIII.
PRESERVES FOR GAME.
the fire, and another a])i)lies it to the shoulder of
the prostrate animal.
10
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
In primitive ages, the chase was not an amuse-
ment, but a necessary occupation among those
people, who did not follow agricultural pursuits, or
^'^w
§ = s
3-c o
60
lead a pastoral life, and who depended for their
subsistence upon the sports of the field : and in
some instances the shepherd was obliged to hunt
CHAP. Vlir. REFLECTIONS ON THE CHASE. ] 1
and destroy the wild beasts, for the security of his
flocks and herds : and sometimes even for his
own safety.* In after times, when population in-
creased, and each community began to adopt the
habits of civilised life, the injuries apprehended
from them decreased ; and the fear of man having
compelled them to remove their haunts to a greater
distance, their pursuit was no longer required ; and
those who hunted followed the occupation as an
amusement, to supply the table, or in the employ of
other persons : as among the Egyptians, Babylo-
nians, Persians, and Medes.
In the East, indeed, it was always looked
upon as a manly exercise, requiring courage and
dexterity, and tending to invigorate the body, and
to instil into the mind a taste for active pursuits ;
it was held in such repute, that the founders of
empires were represented in the character of re-
nowned hunters ; and the Babylonians were so
fond of the chase, that the walls of their rooms pre-
sented a repetition of subjects connected with itt;
and they even ornamented their dresses and the
furniture of their houses with the animals they
hunted. t The Medes and Persians were equally
noted for their love of field sports ; and, like the
Egyptians, they had spacious preserves § where
the game was enclosed ; the grounds of the royal
palaces containing antelopes and other animals,
* Whence in Exodus xxiii. 29. : " I will not drive them out from
before thee in one year, lest the land become desolate, and the beast
of the field multiply against thee."
f Ammian. MarccU. lib. xxvi. c. 6. Diod. 2. J Athen. lib. xii. 9.
§ Xenoph. Cyr. lib. i. " ti' TrapaPtiffoig." Dio. Chrysost. in Orat. 3.
12 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
pheasants, peacocks, and abundance of birds, as
well as lions, tigers, and wild boars.*
The Egyptians frequently coursed with dogs in
the open plains, the chasseur following in his
chariot, and the huntsmen on foot. Sometimes he
only drove to cover in his car, and having alighted,
shared in the toil of searching for the game, his
attendants keeping the dogs in slips, ready to start
them as soon as it appeared. The more usual
custom, when the dogs threw off in a level plain of
great extent, was for him to remain in his chariot,
and, urging his horses to their full speed, endea-
vour to turn or intercept them as they doubled,
discharging a well directed arrow whenever they
came within its range.
The dogs were taken to the ground by persons
expressly employed for that purpose, and for
all the duties connected with the kennel, the
xvvaywyoi f of the Greeks, and were either
started one by one, or in pairs, in the narrow
vallies or open plains : and when coursing on
foot, the chasseur and his attendant huntsmen,
acquainted with the direction and sinuosities of
the torrent beds, shortened the road, as they
followed across the intervening hills, and sought
a favourable opportunity for using the bow : or
marked with a watchful eye the progress of the
course in the level space before them.t For not
only was the chasseur provided with a bow, but many
* Cnrtius, lib. 7 and 8. Xenoph. Cyrop. lib. i.
■f J. Pollux, iv. 5.
j As the Arabs of the present day, in the same districts.
CHAP. VIII.
CATCHING THE GAME.
13
of those also who accompanied him ; and the num-
ber of head brought home was naturally looked
upon as the criterion of Ids good day's sport.
Having with eager haste pursued on foot, and
arrived at the spot where the dogs had caught
their prey, the huntsman, if alone, took up the
game, tied its legs together, and hanging it over
his shoulders, once more led by his hand the
coupled dogs, precisely in the same manner as the
Arabs are wont to do at the present day; this,
however, was generally the office of persons who
followed expressly for the purpose, carrying cages
and baskets on the usual wooden yoke, and who
No. 322.
A huntsman carrying home the game, with his coupled dogs.
took charge of the game as soon as it was caught;
the number of these substitutes for our game cart
depending of course on the proposed range of the
14
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII-
chase, and the abundance they expected to find.
Sometimes an ibex*, oryx, or wild ox, being closely
pressed by the hounds, and driven to an eminence
of difficult ascent, faced round and kept them at
bay, with its formidable horns t, and the spear of
No. 323. Bringing home the game: a gazelle, porcupines, and hare. Beni Hassan.
the huntsman, as he came up, was required to de-
cide the success of the chase.
It frequently happened, when the chasseur had
many attendants, and the district to be hunted was
extensive, that they divided into parties, each
taking one or more dogs, and starting them on
whatever animal broke cover ; sometimes they
went without hounds, merely having a small dog
for searching the bushes, or laid in wait for the
larger and more formidable animals, and attacked
them with the lance.
The noose was also employed to catch the wild
* The wild goat of the desert, the beddan, or taytal, of the Arabs,
which are still common in the desert between the Nile and Red Sea.
f I have occasionally witnessed instances of this in the desert.
CHAP. VIII.
THE NOOSE OR LASSO.
15
OX, the antelope, and other animals ; and as they are
always represented on foot, when throwing it, we
Catching a gazelle with the noose.
Beni Hassan.
may suppose they lay in ambush for this purpose, and
that it was principally adopted when they wished
to secure them alive : since we find they frequently
No. 325.
Catching a wild ox with the noose or lasso.
Belli Hassan.
chased the same animals with dogs, and with the
bow. The noose was very similar to the lasso of
South America, but it does not appear that the
Egyptians had the custom of riding on horse-
back when they used it ; and from the introduction
of a bush immediately behind the man who has
16
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
thrown it, we may suppose the artist intended to
convey the notion of his previous concealment.
Besides the bow, the hounds, and the noose, they
hunted with lions, which were trained expressly
for the chase, like the cheeta or hunting leopard of
3 a
CHAP. Vlir. THE CHASE. ij
India: but there is no appearance of the leopard*
or the {)anther having been employed for this pur-
pose ; and the lion was always the animal they
preferred. It was frequently brought up in a tame
state t, and many Egyptian monarchs are said to
have been accompanied in battle by a favourite
lion, — as we learn from the sculptures of Thebes
and other places, and from the authority of Dio-
dorus. t
The bow used for the chase was very similar to
that employed in war ; the arrows were frequently
the same, with metal heads, but some were tipped
with stone, which are represented in the hunting
scenes of Beni Hassan, and in many of those at
Thebes. The mode of drawing the bow was also
the same, though, as I have already observed, the
chasseurs sometimes pulled the string only to the
breast, instead of the more perfect and more usual
method of raising it, and bringing the arrow to
the ear ; and occasionally, one or more spare
arrows were held in the hand§, to give greater
facility in discharging them with rapidity on the
swift antelopes and wild oxen.
ANIMALS.
The animals they chiefly hunted, were the
gazelle, wild goat or ibex, the oryx, wild ox,
* Bagajet I. (Byazeed) had 12,000 officers and servants of tlie chase.
Besides hounds of various breeds, he had leopards, whose collars were
set with jewels. Gibbon, xi. Gi.
f I have seen two or three tame lions in Cairo. Animals are more
easily tamed in those climates than in Europe.
J Diod. i. 48. And the sculptures of Dayr, Medeenet Haboo
Kalabshi, &c.
§ Vide wood-cut, No. 327. ; and No. 30., in Vol. I.
VOL. III. C
18 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
Stag*, kebsh or wild sheep, hare, and porcupine t;
of all of which the meat was highly esteemed among
* Probably the same as the Cervus barbarus.
f I have not found this animal in Egypt. It is eaten in Italy, and
sold in the markets of Rome and other places.
CHAP. viri.
THK CHASE.
19
c 2
'20 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VI 1 1.
the delicacies of the table. Others, as the fox,
jackal, wolf, hyaena, and leopard, were chased as
an amusement, for the sake of their skins, or as
enemies of the farm-yard j and the ostrich held
out a great temptation to the hunter from the
value of its plumes. These were in great request
among the Egyptians for ornamental purposes ;
a religious veneration for them, as the symbol of
truth, enhanced their value; and the members of the
court on grand occasions failed not to deck them-
selves with the feathers of the ostrich. The labour
endured during the chase of this swift-footed bird
was amply repaid ; even its eggs were required for
some ornamental or religious use, and these, with
the plumes, formed part of the tribute imposed
by the Egyptians on the conquered countries
where it abounded. The purposes to which the
eggs were applied are unknown ; but we may
infer, from a religious prejudice in their favour
among the Christians of Egypt, that some super-
stition was connected with them, and that they
were suspended in the temples of the ancient
Egyptians, as they still are in the churches of the
Copts. *
The subjects of the chase in the sculptures are
frequently represented with great spirit. The
character of the animals is maintained with won-
derful truth, and, though time and the hand of
man have done much to injure them, sufficient re-
* They consider them the emblems of watchfulness. Sometimes
they use them with a different view : the rope of their lamps is passed
through the egg, in order to prevent the rats coming down and drink-
ing the oil, as we were assured by the monks of Dayr Antonios.
CHAP. VIII. FANCIFUL ANIMALS. 21
mains to evince the skill of the Egyptian draughts-
men. Distance and locality are not so well defined,
and the archer, like all Egyptian figures, offends
against every rule of drawing and perspective ; but
the action of the dogs and of the flying antelopes
is spirited, and shows how successfully the effect
was given by simple outline.
It is singular that the wild boar is never repre-
sented among the animals of Egypt, since it is a
native of the coantry ; — and is even eaten at the pre-
sent day, in spite of the religious prejudices of the
Moslems*, by many of the inhabitants of the districts
where it lives : — nor can I suggest any reason for
this omission, except from its not frequenting those
parts where the scenes of the chase are laid, being
confined to the low marshy spots about the north
of the Delta, and the banks of the Lake Moeris. In
the Thebaid it was unknown ; the sculptures or
paintings of Diospolis relate principally to the vi-
cinity of Upper Egypt, and the monuments of the
Delta and the lower country are too few to enable
us to say if it was omitted there. Nor is the
wild ass met with in the paintings, either of
Upper or Lower Egypt, though it is common in
the deserts of the Thebaid.
Many other animals are introduced in the
sculptures, besides those already noticed, some of
which are purely the offspring of disordered im-
agination : and the winged quadrupeds, sphinxes,
or lions, with the head of a hawk, or of a snake,
* That is, followers of Islam. Need I add, tlicy never call tlieni-
selves Mahometans, wliicii is an European misnomer ?
c 3
22
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAr. Vlll.
No. 329. A cliase in the desert oftlieThebaid. Thebes.
To the left of A was the chasseur in his chariot shooting with the bow, now defaced.
Fics 1 , 9, 15, 18. Gazelles. 2, 1 1. Hares. X Female h yxiia, with its young. 4, 1 >. i oxcs.
5 Porcupine, fi. Hva-na arrived at the top of a hill and looking towards the
chasseur. 7. The ibex. 8, 14. HouTids, 12. Ostriches (defaced). 16. The oryx.
HI. Wild oxen.
CHAP. VIII.
THE SPHINX.
23
and some others equally fanciful and unnatural, can
only be compared to the creations of heraldry*, or
serve as companions to the monsters of Pliny, t
The Egyptian sphinx was usually an emblematic
figure, representative of the king, and may be
considered, when with the head of a man and the
body of a lion, as the union of intellect and phy-
No. 330.
Monsters, in the paintings of Beni Hassan and Tliebes.
sical force : it is therefore scarcely necessary to
* An Austrian nobleman asked an English ambassador at Vienna,
whose arms presented a griffin and other monsters, " in what forest
they were met with ? " " In the same," said the ambassador, " where
you find eagles with two heads."
t Plin. viii. 21.
c 4
^4 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
observe that they are never female, as those of
the Greeks. Besides the ordinary sphinx, com-
pounded of a lion and a man, and denominated
androsphinx, were the criosphinx, with the head
of a ram, and the hieracosphinx, with the hawk's
head and lion's body, — all which are represent-
atives of the king : but the asp-headed and the
hawk-headed sphinx with wings, do not appear
to have been adopted as the same symbol.
Those of the above mentioned animals which are
still found in Egypt, either in the Valley of the
Nile, or in the desert, are the gazelle *, ibex, kehshy
hare, fox, jackal, wolf, and hyaena.
The orj/a^i is a native of Ethiopia, as is the
spotted hysenat or marafeen ; v/hich last is once
represented in the Egyptian sculptures. The
oryx Ims long annulated horns, tapering to a sharp
point, and nearly straight, with a slight curve or
inclination backwards. It frequently occurs in
the sculptures, being among the animals tamed
by the Egyptians, and kept in great numbers in
the preserves of their villas.
The beisa^ is very like the oryx, except in the
black marks upon its face, and a few other points ;
and the addaxW, another antelope, inhabiting Upper
Ethiopia, differs principally from the oryx in its
horns, which have a waving or spiral form : but
these do not appear in the sculptures, unless the
Egyptian artists, by an imperfect representation of
* Wood-cut, No. 328.fg. 6, and No. 329. fgs. 1. 9, 10. 15. 18.
+ The antilopeleucoryx.F. wood-cut, No. 328./^. 2. &No.3-<^9./,o'. 16.
4; The canis crocutus, which appears to be the chaus of Pliny, or, as
some editions liave it, chavia : "cffigiehipi,pardorum maculis." Lib.viii.l9.
^ AiUilopebeisa. || Antilopc addax.
CHAP. Vlir. VARIOUS WILD ANIMALS. 2'5
them, and an inattention to their distinguishing pe-
culiarities, have confounded them * with the oryx
or the wild ox.
This last, which is also of the genus anfilope-fy
the defassa of modern zoologists, though not a native
of Egypt, is found in the African desert, and I
believe in Eastern Ethiopia ; it is of a reddish sandy
and grey colour, with a black tuft terminating its
tail, and stands about four feet high at the shoulder.
Though made too much to resemble a common ox
in some of the paintings, it is sufficiently evident
that the Egyptians had in view the defassa^ in their
representations of this animal : and the Theban
sculptors t, who had a better opportunity of
becoming acquainted with it, have succeeded in
giving its character far more satisfactorily than the
painters§ of Beni Hassan.
The stag with branching horns ||, figured at Beni
Hassan, is also unknown in the Valley of the Nile ;
but I have been assured that it is still seen in the
vicinity of the Natron Lakes, though not a native
of the desert between the river and the Red Sea.
The ibex%y which is common in the Eastern
desert, as far north as the range of the Qalalla and
Gebel Aboo-Durrag, or latitude 29° 30', is very
similar to the bouquetin of the Alps, and is called
in Arabic Beddan or Tdytal. The former appel-
lation is exclusively applied to the male, which is
readily distinguished by a beard and large knotted
horns, curving backwards over its body, the female
* Fig. 7 of wood-cut, No. 328. appears to be the addax.
+ Antilope defassa. J Vide wood-cut, No. 329. Jig. 19.
§ Vide wooil-cut, No. 327. fgs. i. & .'i.
■|| Wood-cut, No. 328./^'. 9.' 1[ Wood-cut, No. 328./i,'. I.
26 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
having short erect horns, scarcely larger than those
of the gazelle, and being of a much smaller and
lighter structure.
The kebsh, or wild sheep, is found in the Eastern
desert, princi})ally in the ranges of primitive moun-
tains, which, commencing about latitude 28° 40', at
the back of the limestone hills of the Valley of the
Nile, extend thence into Ethiopia and Abyssinia.
The female kebsh is between two and three feet
high at the shoulder, and its total length from the
tail to the end of the nose is a little more than four
feet: but the male is larger, and is provided with
stronger horns, which are about five inches in
diameter at the roots, and are curved down towards
the neck. The whole body is covered with hair,
like many of the Ethiopian sheep, and the throat
and thighs of the fore legs are furnished with a
long pendent mane ; a peculiarity not omitted in
the sculptures, and which suffices to prove the
identity of the kebsh*, wherever its figure is repre-
sented.
The porcupine is not a native of Egypt ; nor is
the leopard met with on this side of Upper Ethio-
pia. Bears are altogether unknown, and if they
occur twice in the paintings of the Theban tombs,
the manner in which they are introduced suffi-
ciently proves them not to have been among the
animals of Egypt, since they are brought by
foreigners, together with the productions of their
country, which were deemed rare and curious to
the Egyptians. Herodotus is therefore in error
* Wood-cut, No. 328. Jig. 10.
CHAP. VIII. THE WOLF. ^7
respecting the bear* as well as the otter tj but the
Greek name of this last is so ambiguous, that it
may apply to any " animal inhabiting the water,"
which is the signification of the word svu^ig.
With regard to the Egyptian wolf, which he
sayst is small, and " scarcely larger than a fox,"
his statement is fully borne out by fact, and Pliny's
remark §, that " those of Egypt and Africa are
small and inactive," is equally just. But it is still
more remarkable that in Egypt their habits differ,
in one of the principal characteristics of the species,
from those of other countries, being so little gre-
garious ; for, though so often in pursuit of them,
I never met with more than two together, and gene-
rally found them prowling singly over the plain.
M. Sonnini's conclusions, respecting the exist-
ence of the wolf in Egypt, are hasty and erroneous ;
and he has perverted the meaning of Herodotus,
when he says that the sacred animal of Lycopolis
" was not the wolf, for there are none in Egypt, but
the jackal, which seems clearly shown by Herodotus,
when he says the wolves in that country are scarcely
larger than foxes." The tombs in the mountain above
Lycopolis, the modern E'SiootH, contain the mum-
mies of wolves, many of which I have examined, and
ascertained to be of the sacred animals of the place ;
* Herod, ii. 67. " Bears being rare."
•j- Herod, ii. 72. " Tn-'oj'T-rtt cs kui ei/vSquq ev rot Troraixii), rac «p«c
rjyrjvrcu nvai.'' May he mean the " Woiran of the river," the large
lacerta Nilotica ?
X Herod, ii. 07.
§ Plin. 8. 22. " Incrtes hos Hupos) parvosque Africa et Egyptus
gignmit." Aribtot. Hist. An. 1.8. c. xxviii.
II I have shown that Aboolfeda, and others, were wrong in writing
tills name Osioot, in my Egypt and Thebes, p. .389.
28 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VTTI.
the ancient sculptures represent them as natives of
the country in the earhest times ; and the coins of
the Lycopolite nome bear a wolf on their reverse,
with the word lyco (7^uxo), signifying " a wolf." It
is, therefore, evident, that M. Sonnini is in error, as
to their not having been natives of Egypt in the time
of Herodotus; and since we find them on both sides
of tlie Nile, those now met with there are shown to
be indigenous in the country, and not derived
from any which may have accidentally strayed from
the borders of Syria.
The Egyptian hare is a native of the Valley of
the Nile as well as the two deserts. It is remark-
able for the length of its ears, wliich the Egyptians
have not failed to indicate in their sculptures ; but
it is much smaller than those of Europe.
The intelligent Denon has made a just remark
on the comparative size of animals common to
Egypt and Europe, that the former are always
smaller than our own species; and this is exemplified
by none more strongly than the hare and wolf
The wahher* or hyraa:, though a native of the east-
ern desert of Egypt, is not represented in the sculp-
tures ; but this is probably owing to its habits, and
to their hunting principally in the vallies of the
secondary mountains ; the wabber only venturing
a short distance from its burrow in the evening, and
living in the primitive ranges, where the sedlehf or
acacia grows. It was probably the saphan of the
* By a singular inadvertency, this has been called a gazelle, in M.
Leon Delaborde's Petra. Vide the translation, p. lOG, 107.
f The acacia, or mimosa seyal.
CHAP. Vni. THE LION. 29
Bible, as Bruce has remarked, and that enter-
prising traveller is perfectly correct in placing it
among ruminating animals.
In enumerating the wild beasts of the desert, it
may not be irrelevant to observe that the hyaena and
wolf are seldom met with in unfrequented districts,
or any great distance from the Nile, where they
would suffer from want of food, and are therefore
principally confined to the mountains lying at most
a few miles from the edge of the cultivated land.
Once only I have met with the wolf on the coast
of the Red Sea ; and few even of the watering
places of the interior of the desert are infested by
it, or the hyaena.
The lion is now unknown to the north of
Upper Ethiopia : there, however, it is common,
as well as the leopard, the aboomungdr*, and
other carnivorous beasts ; and the abundance of
sheep in those districts amply supplies them
with food, and has the happy tendency of render-
ing them less dangerous to man. In ancient
times, however, the lion inhabited the deserts
of Egypt, and Athenseus mentions one killed by
the emperor Adrian, while hunting near Alexan-
dria.t They are even said, in former times, to
have been found in Syria X, and in Greece.
* The aboomungar is said to be in the Egyptian deserts as well
as the shecb. I have not been able to discover what these two animals
really are; the former was described to me by the Arabs with a pointed
nose, like a wolf, with the power of springing like a leopard, or rather
like a dog, and attacking cattle : the latter was said to have a round
head and shaggy neck.
+ Athen. lib. xv. c. G.
J Sam. xvii. 34. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20. 1 Kings, xiii. 24.
30 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
Among the animals confined to the Valley of the
Nile, and its immediate vicinity, may be mentioned
the ichneumon *, which lives principally in Lower
Egypt and the Fyoom, and which, from its enmity
to serpents, was looked upon by the Egyptians
with great respect. Its dexterity in attacking the
snake is truly surprising. It seizes the enemy at the
back of the neck, as soon as it perceives it rishig to
the attack, one firm bite sufficing to destroy it ; and
when wounded by the venomous fangs of its oppo-
nent, it is said by the Arabs to have recourse to
some herb, which checks the effect of the deadly
poison.
Of the truth, however, of this commonly credited
assertion t, I can say nothing; an Arab assured
me he had witnessed a fight between a large
venomous snake and an ichneumon, which last,
whenever it received a bite, ran to a small plant,
of which it eat a part, rubbing the wound against
the leaves, and then returned to renew the com-
bat ; and in order to ascertain the reality of its
effect, he plucked up and removed the plant, and
having waited to see the wounded animal return
in vain to seek it, he became convinced, by its
death, that the herb alone had previously saved its
life. The Arabs, however, frequently consult their
imagination more than their love of truth, and,
like many authors of amusing tales, they tell their
stories till they believe them true.
* In Arabic, " nims," or " got Pharaoon," Pharaoh's cat. It is the
viverra ichneumon.
-|- They have the same notion in India.
CHAP. VIII. THE ICHNEUMON. GIRAFFE. 31
The ichneumon* is easily tamed, and is some-
times seen in the houses of Cairo, where, in its
hostility to rats, it performs all the duties of a cat ;
but, from its indiscriminate fondness for eggs, poul-
try, and many other requisites for the kitchen, it
is generally reckoned troublesome, and I have
often found reason to complain of those I kept.
Eggs are its favourite food, and it is said to have
been greatly venerated by those who held the
crocodile in abhorrence, in consequence of its
destroying the eggs of that hateful animal t: but
it is now rarely met with in places where the
crocodile abounds ; and we may conclude that at
all periods its principal recommendation was its
hostility to serpents. It is frequently seen in the
paintings, where its habits are distinctly alluded
to by the Egyptian artists, who represent it in
search of eggs, among the bushes, and the usual
resorts of the feathered tribe.
The wild cat, the felis chaus of Linnaeus, is
common in the vicinity of the pyramids and Helio-
polis, but it does not occur among the pictured
animals of ancient Egypt. Nor is the jerboa X, so
frequently met with both in the upper and lower
country, represented in the sculptures.
The giraffe § was not a native of Egypt, but of
* It is often introduced in the sculptures. Vide wood-cut, No. 328.
fig. 20. ; and in wood-cut No. 336. it is represented carrying away a
youn<5 bird from the nest.
t Diod. i. 35.
j Dipus jaculus. It is eaten by the Arabs of Africa. Bruce with
great reason supposes it to be the mouse mentioned in Isaiah, Ixvi. 17.
§ Vide plate 4.
32
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
Ethiopia, and is only introduced in subjects which
relate to that country, where it is brought with
apes, rare woods, and other native productions,
as part of the tribute annually paid to the Pha-
raohs.
The Egyptians had several breeds of dogs*,
No. 331. Various kinds of dogs, from the sculptures.
some solely used for the chase, others admitted
* Vide also plate 4., at end of Vol. I.
CHAP. VIII. DOGS. PIGS. 33
into the parlour, or selected as the companions of
their walks ; and some, as at the present day, se-
lected for their peculiar ugliness. All were looked
upon with veneration, and the death of a dog was not
only lamented as a misfortune, but was mourned by
every member of the house in which it occurred.*
The most common kinds were a sort of fox
dog, and a hound ; they had also a short-legged
dog, not unlike our turnspit, which was a great
favourite in the house, especially, it appears, in
the time of Osirtasen ; and it is possible that,
as in later days, the choice of a monarch led
the taste, or fashion, of the time, to fix upon a
particular breed. Of the fox dog, I have found
several mummies in Upper Egypt, and it is rea-
sonable to conclude that this was the parent stock
of the modern red wild dog of Egypt, which is so
common at Cairo, and other towns of the lower
country.
Herds of cattle, and flocks of sheep t and goats
were numerous ; and pigs, though unclean t, and
an abomination to the Egyptians, frequently formed
part of the stock of the farm-yard ; but they are
more rarely represented in the sculptures than
other animals. Their cattle were of different
kinds, of which three principal distinctions are
most deserving of notice, the short, the long horned
cattle, and the Indian, or humped ox : and the two
* Vide infra, p. 42.
■j- I have already observed, on the authority of Diodorus, that sheep
in Egypt were twice shorn, and twice brought forth lan)bs in the year;
as at the present day. Homer says those of Libva had lambs thrice
in a year. Od. iv. 86. J Herod, ii. 47.
VOL. III. D
3-i
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. VIII.
last, though no longer natives of Egypt, are com-
mon to this day in Abyssinia and Upper Ethiopia.
Horses and asses were abmidant in Egypt, and
s 4
Pigs ; rarely seen in the sculptures.
1. Sows with young pigs. 2. Young pigs. 3. Boars,
a is a wliip, knottetl lilie »orae of our own. b a gayd, or nocso.
Thebes.
the latter were employed as beasts of burden, for
treading out corn, particularly in Lower Egypt,
and for many other purposes. Like those of the
present day, it is probable that they were small,
active, and capable of bearing great fatigue ; and,
considering the trifling expense at which these
hardy animals were maintained, we are not sur-
prised to find that they w ere kept in great numbers
in the agricultural districts, or that one individual
had as many as seven hundred and sixty employed
in different parts of his estate.
Egyptian horses were greatly esteemed ; they
were even exported to the neighbouring coun-
CHAP. VIII. THE CAMEL POULTRY. 35
tries, and Solomon bought them at a hundred and
fifty shekels of silver*, from the merchants who
traded with Egypt by the Syrian desert.
It is remarkable that the camel, though known
to have been used in, and probably a native of,
Egypt, as early at least as the time of Abraham
(the Bible distinctly stating it to have been among
the presents given by Pharaoh to the patriarch!),
has never yet been met with in the paintings or
hieroglyphics. We cannot however infer, from
our finding no representation, or notice of itt,
that it was rare in any part of the country,
since the same would apply to poultry, which,
it is scarcely necessary to observe, was always
abundant in Egypt : for no instance occurs in
the sculptures of fowls or pigeons, among the
stock of the farm-yard, though geese are repeat-
edly introduced, and numbered in the presence of
the stewards.
The mode of rearing poultry, and the artificial
process of hatching the eggs of fowls and geese, I
have already mentioned in a former work§, where
I have shown the method adopted by the Copts,
from tlieir predecessors. ||
Many birds, which frequented the interior and
skirts of the desert, and were highly prized for the
table, were caught in nets and traps, by the fowlers,
* 1 Kings, X. 28, 29.
■j- Gen. xii. IG. The name in Hebrew is the same by which the ani-
mal is known in Arabic, Gemel, gemelin), " D'baJ." ^■"^^ n'so Exod. ix. 3.
J I have a stone seal found in Nubia, on which two camels are
rudely engraved, but it is of uncertain date.
§ Egypt and Thebes, p. 2+.5, 2-iC.
II Diod. i. s. 74. Pliny, x. c. 54.
D 2
36 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
as the partridge, gutta*^ bustard t, and quail t;
and waterfowl of different descriptions, which
abounded in the Valley of the Nile, afforded
endless diversion to the sportsman, and profit to
those who gained a livelihood by their sale.
FOWLING.
Fowling was a favourite amusement of all classes;
and the fowlers and fishermen, as I have already
observed, were subdivisions of one of the castes.
They either caught the birds in large clap-nets §,
or in traps ; and they sometimes shot them with
arrows, or felled them with a throw-stick, as they
flew in the thickets.
The trap II was generally made of network,
strained over a frame. It consisted of two semi-
circular sides or flaps, of equal sizes, one or both
moving on the common bar, or axis, upon which
they rested. When the trap was set, the two flaps
were kept open by means of strings, probably of
catgut, which, the moment the bait that stood in
the centre of the bar was touched, slipped aside,
and allowed the two flaps to collapse, and thus se-
cured the bird.
Another kind, which was square, appears to
have closed in the same manner ; but its construc-
tion was different, the framework running across
the centre, and not, as in the others, round the
edges of the trap.
• The Pterocles melanogaster. Vide Egypt and Thebes, p. 245,
f The Otis hebara.
X Herod, ii. 77. : Diod. i. 60, ; and the sculptures.
§ F, wood-cut, No. 333. part ii. || V. wood-cut, No. 333.
CHAP. VIIl. FOWLING THE CLAP-NET.
37
D 3
38
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
If their skill in making traps is not proved in
those used by the fowlers, it may at least be in-
No. 33 k
Bcni Hassan.
Bird traps.
Fig. 1. Trap closed and the bird caught in it ; the net work of it has been efl'aced, as also
in fig. 3. The other traps are open.
ferred from that in which the robber was caught
in the treasury of Rhampsinitus * ; since the power
of the spring, or the mechanism of the catch, was
so great that his brother was unable to open it or
release him.
They do not seem to have used the bow very
generally to shoot birds, nor was the sling adopted,
except by gardeners and peasants to frighten
them from the vineyards t and fields. The use of
the throw-stick X was very general, every ama-
teur chasseur priding himself on the dexterity he
displayed with this missile : and being made of
heavy wood, flat, and offering little surface to the
* Vide Vol. 1. p. 123. f V. woodcut. No. 136. Vol. II. p. 149.
X The Irish frequently use it for the same purpose.
CHAP. VIII.
THROW-STICKS.
39
air in the direction of its flight, the distance to
which an expert arm could throw it was consider-
No. 335. A sportsman using the throw-stick. Thebes.
Figs. 2. and 3. his sister and daughter. 4. A decoy bird. 5. 5. Birds struck with the stick.
able; though they always endeavoured to approach
the birds as near as possible, under the cover
of the bushes or reeds. It was from one foot
and a quarter to two feet in length, and about
one inch and a half in breadth, slightly curved at
the upper end ; and its general form may be inferred
from one found at Thebes by Mr. Burton, from those
of the Berlin Museum, and from the sculptures.
On their fowling excursions, they usually pro-
D 4
40 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
ceeded with a party of friends and attendants, some-
times accompanied by the members of their family,
and even their young children, to the jungles or
thickets of the marsh lands, or to the lakes of their
owngroundsjformedby the waters of the overflowing
Nile, at the period of the inundation, when wild fowl
was more abundant than at any other season of the
year ; and seated in punts made of the papyrus *, or
rushes of various kinds, they passed without disturb-
ing the birds, amidst the lofty reeds which grew in
the water, and masked their approach. This sort of
boat was either towed, pushed by a pole, or pro-
pelled by paddles; and a religious prejudice in-
duced the Egyptians to believe that persons who
used it were secure from the attacks of croco-
diles t ; a story which can be more readily believed
and explained, when we remember that they prin-
cipally used these boats in the lakes and inland
canals, where crocodiles were seldom seen.
The attendants collected the game as it fell, and
one of them was always ready to present a fresh
stick to the chasseur, as soon as he had thrown.
They frequently took with them a decoy bird,
which w^as posted in a convenient place ; and in
order more effectually to prevent its quitting the
post assigned to it, a female was selected for the
purpose, whose nest, containing eggs, was brought
with it and deposited in the boat.
* Conf. Lucan, iv. 136. : —
" Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymba papyro." and Plin, xiii. 11.
-|- Plut. de Is. s. 18. " Isis . . . made use of a boat constructed of the
reed papyrus, in order to pass more easily through the fenny parts of
the country, whence, they say, the crocodile never touches any persons
who go in this sort of vessel."
CHAP. VIII.
FOWLING CATS.
41
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42 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
A favourite cat sometimes attended them on
these occasions, and from the readiness with which
No. 037. Sportsman using the throw-stick. British Museum.
Fig. 2. keeps the boat steady by holding tlio stalks of a lotus. 4. A cat seizing the game in
the thicket. 5. A decoy bird.
it is represented to have seized the game, the
artist has intended to show that those animals
acted as retrievers, or were trained to catch the
birds ; being let out of the boat into the thickets
which grew at the water's edge : though making
every allowance for the great skill attributed to
the Egyptians in taming and training animals, it
is difficult to persuade us that the cat cotdd be
induced, on any consideration, to take the water,
in quest of a fallen bird.
That cats, as well as dogs, were looked upon
with great esteem by the P^gyptians, is evident
CHAP. VIII. CATS AND DOGS. 43
from the care they took to preserve and embahn
them, and from the express statements of ancient
writers. Herodotus * mentions the concern they
felt at their loss, and the general mourning that
ensued in a house, even if they died a natural
death ; every inmate being obliged to shave his
eyebrows, in token of sorrow, for the loss of a
cat, and the head and whole body for the death
of a dog. When ill, they watched and attended
them with the greatest solicitude ; and, if any per-
son purposely, or even involuntarily t, killed one
of these revered animals, it was deemed a capital
offence ; nor could all the influence of the magis-
trates, nor even the dread of the Roman name pre-
vent the people from sacrificing to their resentment
an incautious Roman who had killed a cat, though
it was evident that he had done it unintentionally.
"So deeply rooted in their minds," says Diodorus,
" was the superstitious regard for the sacred animals,
and so strongly were the passions of every one bent
upon their honour, that, even at this time, when
Ptolemy had not yet been called a king by the
Romans, and the people were using every possible
effort to flatter the Italians, who visited the country
as strangers, and studiously avoided any thing
which could excite disputes, or lead to war, on ac-
count of their dread of the consequences, they posi-
tively refused to restrain their anger, or to spare
the offender."
Some remains of this prejudice in favour of the
* Herod, ii. 66. f Diod. i. 83.
44 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
cat * may still be traced among the modern Egyp-
tians, who even allow it to eat from the same disht,
and to be the constant companion of their children ;
though the reputed reason of their predilection
for this animal is its utility in watching and de-
stroying scorpions, and other reptiles, which infest
the houses.
Dogs are not regarded by them with the same
feelings ; they are considered unclean, and are
seldom admitted into the house, except by some
persons of the Malekee sect, who do not, like
the ShafFaees, and Hanefees, consider themselves
defiled by their touch. But though they draw this
marked distinction between them, the character
given to the two animals appears to be in favour of
the dog ; which they represent, in the true spirit of
oriental fable, when asked hereafter respecting the
treatment it received from man, concealing all the
numerous injuries it has received, and magnifying
the few benefits, while the cat is supposed to
deny the obligations conferred upon it, and to en-
deavour to detract from the merits of its bene-
factor.
Though the death of a cat is not attended with
lamentations or funeral honours, it is looked upon
by many of the modern Egyptians to be wrong
to kill, or even to illtreat them : and some have
carried their humanity so far as to bequeath by will
a fund for their support, in compliance with which
* They are much more tractable and attached in Egypt than in
Europe. The cat and dog are not there the eml)leiiis of discord.
•j- This is a general custom with the Moslems.
CHAP. VIII. MODE OF INDICATING SILENCE. 45
these animals are daily fed in Cairo at the Cadi's
court, and the hazdr of Khan Khaleel.
The clap net was of different forms, though on
the same general principle as the traps already
mentioned. It consisted of two sides or frames, over
which the network was strained ; at one end was
a short rope, which they fastened to a bush, or a
cluster of reeds, and at the other was one of con-
siderable length, which, as soon as the birds were
seen feeding in the area within the net, was
pulled by the fowlers, causing the instantaneous
collapsion of the two sides.* The Egyptian nets
were very similar to those used in Europe at the
present day, but probably larger, and requiring a
greater number of persons to manage them than
our own ; this, however, may be attributed to an
imperfection in their contrivance for closing them.
As soon as they had selected a convenient spot
for laying down the net, in a field or on the sur-
face of a pond, the known resort of numerous wild
fowl, they spread open the two sides or flaps, and
secured them in such a manner that they remained
flat upon the ground, until pulled by the rope. A
man, crouched behind some reeds, growing at a
convenient distance from the spot, from which
he could observe the birds as they came down,
watched the nett, and enjoining silence by plac-
ing his hand over his mouth, beckoned to those
holding the rope to keep themselves in readiness,
till he saw them assembled in sufficient numbers,
* Vide wood-cut, No. 333. part 2.
f He was styled \(vo7rr»;(,- by the Greeks. J. Pollux, v. i.
46
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
wlien a wave of his hand gave the signal for closing
the net.
No. 338.
Clap nets, from the sculptures.
The sign adopted by the Egyptians to indicate
silence is evidently shown, from these scenes, to
have been given by placing the hand over the
mouth ; not, as generally supposed *, by approach-
ing the forefinger to the lips; and the Greeks
erroneously conchided, that the youthftd Harpo-
crates was the deity of silence, from his appearing
in this attitude ; which, however humiliating to the
character of a deity, was only iUustrative of his
extreme youth, and of a habit common to children
in every country, whether of ancient or modern
times.
Some nets were of a single piece, stretched
over a frame ; others were furnished with addi-
* And by Plutarch, De Isid. s. 68,
CHAP. Vin. BIRDS OF EGYPT. 47
tional sections of a diamond shape*, and in some
the interior portion was surrounded by an outer cir-
cuit of an oval form, to which the ring of the rope
was attached.
It is probable that the ancient Egyptians adopted
the same ingenious method of catching ducks, wid-
geons, and other water fowl, as the modern inhabit-
ants of Lower Egypt t ; who, when the inundation
covers the lands, creep unperceived to the water's
edge, and placing a gourd upon their head, with two
holes cut in front, through whicli they look, swim
towards the unsuspecting birds, and taking them
one after the other by the legs, suddenly pull them
under the water, and tie them to their girdle; thus,
in a short space of time, securing great numbers,
without alarming the rest.
The birds taken in nets were principally geese,
ducks, quails, and some small kinds which they
were in the habit of salting, especially in Lower
Egypt, where Herodotus t tells us they "ate
quails, ducks, and small birds undressed, having
merely preserved them in salt, living at the same
time on all sorts of birds and fish, not reckoned
sacred, which were eaten either roasted or boiled."
For though geese constituted a very great portion
of the food of the Egyptians, both in the upper
and lower country, and are more frequently repre-
sented in the sculptures than any bird, it is not
to be supposed that they were preferred to the
* This calls to mind the nets mentioned by J. Pollux, v. 4., of which
a square part termed the /^fjoxof became poji^otiSfc, of a rhomboi'dal
figure, as soon as the net (apK-ni;) was stretched.
f The same is done in India. X Ht^iod. ii. 77.
48
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VITI.
No. 339. Ifi Somcof the birds of Egypt. 17 BcniHassan.
CHAP. VIII. VARIOUS BIRDS. 49
exclusion of others j and besides poultry and
pigeons, which abounded in Egypt, many of the
wading tribe, the curlew, the ardea^ and several
others were esteemed for the table, and even in-
troduced among the choice offerings presented to
the gods. The practice of salting birds, in a
country like Egypt, may, perhaps, be considered
singular ; but confirmation of the statement of
Herodotus is derived from the sculptures, where
some poulterers appear to be in the act of pre-
serving them in this manner, and depositing them
in jars.*
Independent of the birds taken in nets, and by
other means, the Egyptian poulterers supplied the
market with the eggs of those most in request;
they also reared the young after the eggs were
hatched, (which was frequently done, as already
observed, by an artificial process,) and these were
sold to supply the poultry -yards of the rich, whose
stock of wild fowl was often numerous.
The various birds represented in the Egyptian
sculptures, cannot always be recognised with cer-
tainty, in consequence of the loss of the colours,
or a want of skill in their artists, who, disregard-
ing the intermediate hues, adopted certiiin fixed
colours, in a conventional manner, as an approx-
imation ; and unless the character of the birds is so
marked as to be readily distinguished by a simple
outline, it is often difficult to identify them.
In some, however, there is sufficient to guide us
without the necessity of conjecture, and these T
* Vide wood-cut, No. 80.
VOL. 111. E
50
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
JL^^ jl •^.•o-«~^ ^,
6 7 89
,il N/C tlx- 'iVr''
-■5
'xm-'it^i^L^i^x ix"-i
•30 21
No. 340 Some of the birds of Egypt. Seni Hassan, and the Tombs near the Pyramttls.
Figs. 18, 19, 20, Bats. 21, The locust. From Tlebcs.
CHAP. VIII.
BIRDS.
.51
shall notice in their proper order, without distin-
guishing between such as were forbidden, or ad-
mitted at an Egyptian table.
BIRDS OCCURRING IN THE SCULPTURES.
1. Raptores.
Vultur Nubicus.
Vultur percnopterus. >
Aquila.
Falco cinereo-ferrugineus. "1
Fors. J
Falco ?
Falco tenunculoides.
Bubo niaximus.
Strix flammea.
Strix passerina.
Insessores.
Lanius excubitor ?
Corvus corax.
Corvus cornix.
Turdus viscivorus.
Alauda cristata.
Alauda arenaria.
Upupa epops.
Hirundo rustica.
Alcedo ispida.
Fringilla; several species.
Rasores, or Gallinaceous.
Columba turtur.
Pterocles melanogaster.
Perdix coturnix.
Otis Hebara ?
Struthio camelus.
Grallatores, wading birds.
Ardea garzetta. >
Ardea cinerea.
Ardea ciconia ;
and some other species.
Tantalus, or Niimenius, Ibis.
Platalea.
The large vulture of Egypt and
Nubia, which occurs frequently
on the ceilings and sculptures
of the temples.
The small white vulture, called
also Pharaoh's hen.
The eagle.
The kite, or Miluus. Falco arda
of Savigny.
The sacred hawk.
The common brown hawk.
Horned owl.
White owl.
Small owl.
Great shrike, or butcher bird ?
The raven.
The Royston crow.
Missel thrush.
Crested lark.
Sand-coloured-lark.
Hoopoe.
The swallow.
Common king-fisher.
Finches.
Turtle-dove.
The Gutta*
The quail.
Ruffed bustard ?
The ostrich.
Small white stork
of Hasselquitz.
Grey heron.
White stork.
The ibis.
Spoonbill.
the Ar. Virco
* This name has been given it in Arabic from the noise it makes
when alarmed and flying.
E ^
5^
THE y\NCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
Charadrius armatus.
Scolopax gallinago.
Fulica atra ?
5. Natatores, swimming birds.
Anser ^gyptius ;
and other species.
Anas ; various species.
Anas creca.
Recurvirostra avosetta.
Pelicanus onocratulus.
Spur-winged plover.
Snipe.
The common coot ?
Egyptian goose.
Ducks.
Teal.
Avoset.
The pelican.
Many other birds are figured in the sculptures ;
but as it is difficult to determine the exact species
to which they belong, I shall not hazard any con-
jecture upon their names, having noticed those
which most commonly occur. In the tombs of
Thebes and Beni Hassan the Egyptians have not
omitted to notice bats, and even some of the
^>^^
Ail Egyptian gciitUinan fi.--!iiiii
insects, which abound in the Valley of the Nile ;
and the well known locust*, the butterfly t, and the
* Vide wood .cut, No. 340. fig. 21.
f Vide wood-cuts, Nos. 336, 337, and 341.
CHAP. VIII. FISHING WITH GROUND BAIT.
53
beetle are occasionally introduced in the fowling
scenes, and in sacred subjects.
FISHING.
Fishing was an amusement in which the Egyp-
tians particularly delighted ; and not contented
with the abundance afforded by the Nile, they con-
structed within their grounds spacious '* sluices or
ponds for fish * ," like the vivaria of the Romans,
where they fed them for the table, and where they
amused themselves by angling t, and the dexterous
use of the hident.
These favourite occupations were not confined
to young persons, nor thought unworthy of men
of serious habits j and an Egyptian of conse-
No. 342.
Fishing with ground bait.
These fish are the Shilbeh, or rather the Arabrab.
Bi:ni Hassan.
quence is frequently represented in the sculptures,
catching fish in a canal or lake with the line, or
* Isaiah, xix. 10.
f Isaiah, xix. 8,
E 3
54f THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
spearing them, as they glided past the bank. Some-
times the angler posted himself in a shady spot
at the water's edge, and having ordered his ser-
vants to spread a mat upon the ground, he sat
upon it as he threw the line ; and some with higher
notions of comfort used a chair for the same purpose.
The rod was short, and apparently of one piece ;
the line usually single, though instances occur of
a double line, each furnished with its own hook,
which, judging from those I have found, was of
bronze.
The fishermen, who, as I have observed, com-
posed one of the subdivisions of the Egyptian
castes, and who gained their livelihood by fishing,
generally used the net in preference to the line,
but on some occasions they employed the latter,
seated or standing on the bank. It is, however,
probable, that these were people who could not
aflPord the expence of nets ; and the use of the line
is generally confined, in like manner, at the present
day, to the poorer classes*, who depend upon skill,
or good fortune, for their subsistence.
In all cases they adopted a ground bait, as is
still the custom in Egypt, without any float ; and
though several winged insects are represented in
the paintings hovering over the water, it does not
appear that they ever put them to the hook, and
still less that they had devised any method similar
to our artificial fly-fishing ; which is still unknown
to the Egyptians, though the fish of the Nile are
occasionally seen to rise to insects on the water's
surface.
* Vide vignette D., at the head of chap. iv. Vol. II.
CHAP VIII. DRYING AND SALTING FISH.
55
The ordinary Egyptian net has been ah-eady
mentioned*, as well as the mode of dragging it to
A sort of landing net.
Thebes.
the shore ; but it sometimes happened that they
used a smaller kind, for catching fish in shallow
water, furnished with a pole on either side, to
which it was attached ; and the fisherman holding
one of the poles in either hand, thrust it below the
surface of the water, and awaited the moment
when a shoal of fish passed over it; the same
being probably used for landing those which had
been wounded with the spear, or entangled with
the hook.t
When they employed the drag-net, and even when
they pulled it to the shore, a boat sometimes at-
tended, in which the fish were deposited as soon as
they were caught ; those intended for immediate
use, to be eaten fresh, being sent off to market
when the day's sport was finished ; and the others
being opened, salted, and hung up to dry in the
sun.
* Vol. II. p. 21.
f Vide wood-cut, No. 343.
E 4
56
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VITI.
Some were cut in half, and suspended on ropes
for this purpose, the passing current of air being
found to accelerate the process ; sometimes the
body was simply laid open with a knife from the
head to the tail, the two sides beins? divided as
CHAP. VIII. SALTED AND FRESH FISH.
57
far as the back bone ; and many were contented
with taking out the intestines, and removing tlie
head, and tip of the tail, and exposing them, when
salted, to the sun.
1 2
Another mode of carrying large fish.
Tomb near the Pyramids
When caught, the small fish were generally put
into baskets, but those of a larger kind were sus-
pended to a pole, borne by two or more men over
their shoulders ; or were carried singly in the hand,
slung at their back, or under the arm ; all which
methods I have seen adopted by the modern fish-
ermen, at the Cataracts of E'Sooan, and in other
parts of Egypt.
Salted, as well as fresh fish, were much eaten*
in Egypt, both in the Thebaid and the lower
country, as the sculptures and ancient authors in-
form us ; and at a particular period of the year, on
the 9th day of the first month (Thoth)t, every
• Conf. Herod, ii. 92. Diod. i. 36. Perhaps the rcunKt] XiyvnTta of
Julius Pollux, Onoin. vi. 9.
\ The first of Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August.
Vide Vol. 1. p. 275.
58 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
person was obliged, by a religious ordinance, to
eat a fried fish before the door of his house, with
the exception of the priests, who were contented
to burn it on that occasion.*
Some fish were particularly prized for the table,
and preferred as being more wholesome, as well as
superior in flavour to others ; among which we may
mention the biiltif, the gishert, the be7ini^i the
shallWy the shilheh ^ and ardb7'aby the bi/ad * *, the gar-
mootff, and a few others ; but it was unlawful to touch
those which were sacred, as the oxyrinchus, the pha-
grus, and the lepidotus: and the inhabitants of the
city of Oxyrinchus objected even to eat any fish
caught by a hook, lest it should have been defiled
by the blood of one they held so sacred, tt
The oxyrinchus, I have elsewhere observed§§,
was probably the mizdehy a mormyrus remarkable
among the fish of the Nile for its pointed nose || ||, as
the word oxyrinchus implies ; and, the resemblance
of the Coptic name of that city, which was called
Mge, to that of the fish, strongly favoiu's this opinion.
The phagrus was the eel, and the reason of its
sanctity, like that of the former, was probably owing
to its unwholesome qualities ; the most effectual
method of forbidding its use being to assign it a
place among the sacred animals of the country.
The lepidotus is still uncertain ; its name proves
it to have been a scaly fish, but the various
* Plut. De Is. s. 7. + Or booltccy Labrus Niloticus.
J Perca Nilotica. $ Cyprinus Benni.
II Silurus Shall. f The Silurus Schilbe Niloticus.
** Silurus Bajad. +f Silurus Carmuth.
tX Plut. de Isid. s. 7. ^§ Egypt and Thebes, p. 366.
nil V. wood-cut, No. 366. figs. 14. 20., and No. 81. fig. 1. p.20. Vol. II.
CHAP. VIII. DIFFERENT FISH. 59
conjectures of naturalists have led to nothing
satisfactory respecting it. Linnaeus believed it to
be a carp, the cyprinus ruhescens Niloticufi ; Sicard
preferred the henni, and others the hultiy or the
gisher ; but if I may be pardoned for venturing
a conjecture, there appears to be more reason to
suppose it the kelb el hahr*^ called the dogfish of
the Nile ; which, though a wholesome fisht, might,
from its appearance, create a prejudice in the
minds of a superstitious people, sufficient to forbid
its introduction at table, and obtain for it a place
among their sacred fish : nor do I know of an
instance of its introduction in the Egyptian sculp-
tures.
Like the sacred quadrupeds, they were not all
regarded with the same reverence in different parts
of the country X ; Plutarch even states that these
three fish were generally held in aversion § by the
Egyptians ; and the people of Cynopolis, accord-
ing to the same author ||, were in the habit of eating
the oxyrinchus, which, he adds, " was the origin
of a civil war between the two cities, till both
sides, after doing each other great mischief, were
severely punished by the Romans."
Of all fish the bulti ^ was evidently preferred, and
not, indeed, without reason, being still considered
* Salmo Dentex, which has very large scales.
-{- The fish, in Egypt, are considered better after October than in the
summer months : they think that fish with scales are the only kind
wholesome even in winter.
J Another fish, the latus, was worshipped at Latopolis in the
Thebaid.
§ Pint. De Isid. s. 18. || Plut. De Isid. s. 72.
"t It is represented in wood-cut, No. 341. figs. 1. & 5. No. 81. c. and
g. No. 336. fig. 8., &c.
60 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIIT.
inferior to none produced in the Nile. Many
others, not readily ascertained from the mode of
representing them, occur in the sculptures of
Upper and Lower Egypt, and we even find the
eel and the mizdeh introduced among those at
Beni Hassan and other places ; but the difficulty,
which this at first sight appears to present, is
readily explained by the observation I have already
made, of their having been held sacred in some, and
not in other, cities, or districts of Egypt.
The favourite mode of fishing, among those who
took a pleasure in it, and prided themselves on
their skill, was with the bident spear. They
sometimes stood on the bank of a canal, but gene-
rally used a punt, or boat made of papyrus*, in
which they glided smoothly over the lakes, and
canals, within their own grounds, without disturb-
ing the fish as they lay beneath the broad leaves
of the lotus plant. The custom of angling for
amusement, and spearing with the bident, may be
considered peculiar to the higher orders, and
while the poorer classes employed the net and
hook, as already stated, the use of the spear was
confined to the sportsman.
The bident was a spear with two barbed points,
which was either thrust at the fish with one, or both
hands, as they passed by ; or was darted to a short
distance, a long line fastened to it preventing its
being lost, and serving to secure the fish when
struck. It was occasionally furnished with feathers
at the upper extremity, like an arrow, to assist
* The name of papyrus, or byblus, was applied to more than one
plant of the genus cyperus, as I shall have occasion to show.
CHAP. VIII. THE PAPYRUS PLANT. 6\
in its distent flight, and sometimes a common
spear was used for the purpose ; but in most
cases, it was provided with a line, whose end was
held by the left hand, or wound upon a reel. The
same mode of fishing is still adopted by many
people who live on the sea- coasts ; and the fish
spears of the South Sea islanders have two, three,
and four points, and are used nearly in the same
manner, and with the same dexterity, as the bident
by the ancient Egyptians.
On these occasions they were usually accom-
panied by a friend, or some of their children, and
by one or two attendants, who assisted in secur-
ing the fish, and who, taking them off the barbed
point of the spear, passed the stalk of a rush through
the gills, and thus attached them together, in order
more conveniently to carry them home. *
I have frequently had occasion to mention boats
made of the byblus or papyrus. It is evident that
this plant, from its great value and from its exclu-
sive cultivation in certain districts, where it was
a government monopoly, could not have been
applied to the many purposes mentioned in ancient
authors ; we may therefore conclude, that several
plants of the genus cijperus were comprehended
under the head of byblus or papyrus. Tliis is not
only in accordance with probability, from their
general resemblance, but is cxj)ressly stated by
Strabot, who says, that '* much grows in the lower
part of the Delta, where one kind is of an inferior,
the other of a superior quality, and this last is
* Vide wood-cut, No. 336. fig. 13.
t Strabo, Jib. xvii. p. 550. ed. Cas.
62 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
known by the distinctive appellation of Hieratic
Byblus. That the profits arising from its sale may
be increased, they have adopted the same plan
which was devised in Judsea, regarding the date
tree and balsam, permitting it to grow only in
certain places ; so that its rarity increasing its
value, they benefit themselves at the expense of the
community.'* And that under the name *' Papy-
rus " he includes other kinds of cyperus produced
spontaneously in the marshy lands, is evident from
his observing that, " the papyrus does not grow in
great quantity about Alexandria, because it is not
cultivated there:" and Pliny*, and other writers,
show that the plant to which they frequently
applied this name was wild in many parts of Egypt.
There is therefore reason to believe, that several
species were comprehended under thegeneral appel-
lation of byblus or papyrus ; the cyperus dives, which
grows to the height of five or six feet, is still culti-
vated in Egypt for many of the purposes to which
the papyrus plant is said to have been applied ;
and I have no doubt, that this was the species com-
monly employed in former times for making mats,
baskets, parts of sandals, papyrus boats, and for
other ordinary uses ; the cyperus papyrus, or pa-
pyrus (byblus) hieraticus of Strabo, being confined
to the manufacture of paper.
The great abundance of fish t produced in the
• Plin. xiii. 1 1. According to one reading Pliny says, " All the paper
is grown in the Sebennytic nome ; " but another gives, " nothing but
paper is grown " there, which is evidently the sense required ; " non
nisi charta," for " omnis charta," as he afterwards mentions its being
found in other parts of Egypt. V. infra on the manufacture of paper.
t Strabo, xvii. p. 566. Diod. i. 36. 43. and 52.
CHAP. Vlir. THE LAKE MCERIS. 6-*^
Nile was an invaluable provision of nature, in a
country which had neither extensive pasture lands,
nor large herds of cattle, and where corn was the
principal production. When the Nile inundated
the country and filled the lakes and canals with
its overflowing waters, these precious gifts were
extended to the most remote villages in the in-
terior of the Valley, and the plentiful supply of
fish, they then obtained, was an additional benefit
conferred upon them at this season of the year.
The quantity is said* to have been immense, as
indeed it is at the present day t ; and the shoals of
small fish, which then appear in the canals and
ponds, call to mind, and confirm, a remark of He-
rodotus, respecting their numbers at the rising
Nile. His explanation of the cause of their ap-
parently sudden production is inadmissible and
unnecessary, as the ponds were always filled by
artificial or natural ducts ; and the same species of
young fry which are found there, appear at the
same time in the river ; nor are they of any
particular kindt, but the young of the various fish
inhabiting the Nile.§
Herodotus mentions a large sum annually pro-
duced by the fisheries of the lake Moeris. " Dur-
ing six months," says the historian ||, '* the water of
* Herodot. ii. 93. Strabo, loc. cit.
f Michaud says that the lakeMenzaleh now yields an annual revenue
of 800 purses, (5,600/.). F. Correspond, de I'Orient. torn. vi. let. 156.
J Vide De Sacy's Abd-al-latif, note l+l., in lib. i. c. 4.
§ I have caught a small net full of them, and on examination found
them to be of the silurus shall and other common species ; and no one who
has eaten them at table can have failed to observe that they are of dif-
ferent kinds, from the greater or less quantity of bones they contain.
II Herodot. ii. 49.
04 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
the river flows into it, and during the remaining
half of the year, it returns from the lake into the
Nile. At this time, while the water is retiring,
the profits derived from the fisheries, and paid
daily into the royal treasury, amount to a talent of
silver* (193/. 15^. English t); and during the
other six months, when the water flows from the
Nile into the lake, they do not exceed twenty
minset" (about 64/. 12.s'.). Diodorus says, that when
Moeris, from whom the lake derived its name, and
who was supposed to have made the canal, had ar-
ranged the sluices for the introduction of the water,
and established every thing connected with it, he
assigned the sum annually derived from this source
as a dowry to the queen, for the purchase of
jewels, ointments, and other objects connected
with the toilet. The provision was certainly very
liberal, being a talent every day, or upwards of
70,700/. a year§; and when this formed only a
portion of the pin-money of the Egyptian queens,
to whom the revenues of the city of Anthylla,
famous for its wines, were given for their dress ||,
it is certain they had no reason to complain of the
allowance they enjoyed.
I have frequently had occasion^ to notice the
* Reckoning the talent at 60 minse.
-j- Some compute it to be 225/. J The mina was 3/. 45. Id.
§ Diodor. i. 32. From till the fisheries of Egypt would have been
less improbable. The lake Moeris is now farmed for 30 purses (210/.)
annually. Of 90 piastres, from the sale of the fish, 10 are paid for the
boat, 40 to the fishermen, and 40 to the farmers of the fish. There are
only now six boats on the lake.
II Herodot. (ii. 98.) says, " for their sandals j" Athenaeus (Deipn.
i. 25.) " for their dress ; " a privilege continued to the queens of Persia,
after Egypt was conquered by Cambyses.
H Vide Egypt and Thebes, p. 354; and svjml, Vol. I. p. 93.
CHAP. VIII. FISHERIES. 65
error of Herodotus, in confounding the lake Moeris
with the canal, and have proved from Pliny *, that
the name was also applied to the canal which con-
ducted the water from the Nile, to what is now
called the Birket el Qorn ; and in order to show
the impossibility of the return of the waters from
the lake itself to the higher level of the Nile, and
that Herodotus did not judge from his own ob-
servation, but mistook the facts detailed to him by
his Egyptian informants, who had in view the
canal alone, when speaking of the return of the
water to the river, I shall repeat what I before
remarked on this subject. t
" Herodotus's account of the water returning from
the lake to the Nile, on the subsiding of the inun-
dation, is totally inapplicable to the lake Moeris,
the level of its surface being about 100, or 120
feet lower than the bank of the Nile at Benisooef ;
which, making every allowance for the rise of the
bed of the river, and the proportionate elevation
of its banks, could never have been on a level, even
in Herodotus's time, with the lake Moeris ; and con-
sequently no return of the water could have taken
place from the lake to the Nile. From the canal,
however, it could, as at the present day ; and the
fish caught at the mouth of this and other canals,
at that season, still afford a considerable revenue to
the government, and are farmed by certain vil-
lages on the banks. That the level of the lake
Moeris must be now about the same as formerly, is
* Plin. xxxvi. 12. " IJbi fuit Moeridis laciis, hoc est fossa grandis."
t Egypt and Thebes, p. 338,
VOL. in. F
66 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
evident from our finding ruins of baths on its
borders ; and the accidental and temporary rise of
its waters, which happened some years since, was
merely owing to the bursting of the great dyke at
Tomeeh. As to the Bathen of the great geo-
grapher D'Anville, it is quite Utopian."
The quantity offish now caught in the lake Moeris
itself, or Birket el Qorn, is very great, and supplies
the markets of the Fyoom with abundance and
variety of the finest kind — superior, certainly, in
flavour to those of the Nile, though of the same
species ; but it is probable that the saline quality
of the water may effect the slight change observable
in the lake fish. I do not believe it produces
any species, or even varieties, differing from those
of the Nile, from whence, doubtless, it derived its
original stock ; and the twenty- two kinds it pro-
duced, according to the information of Diodorus *,
do not appear to have been at any time considered
different from those of the parent stream.
Like that of the canals, the lake fishing is farmed
by the government to some rich inhabitants of the
district t, who are usually Copt Christians ; and the
fish, as in former times, are either taken fresh to
the market, or are dried and salted, as Diodorus ob-
serves in his notice of the lake ; though the number
of persons t engaged in this occupation bears a very
small proportion to that of former times.
* Diod. i. 52. Vide Strabo, lib. xvii. p. 5G6., on the Nile fish.
'^ The small village of" Agalteh, at Thebes, pays annually 1500 pias-
tres, about 21/., to government for the fish of its canal.
t Diod. loc. cit. " They say that 22 kinds of fish are found in it
(the lake Moeris), and so large a number is caught, that the numerous
saltcrs who are constantly employed there, can with difficulty get
through the work imposed upon them."
CHAP. VIJI. REVENUE FROM THE FISHERIES. 6?
This custom of farming the fisheries was pro-
bably derived by the Arab government from their
predecessors ; it does not, however, seem to have
been adopted by them at their first occupation of
the country, but was introduced subsequently, since
the Arab historian El Makrisi mentions it as a new
idea. The method employed was doubtless simi-
lar to that of ancient times, which continues to the
present day ; and the passage is so curious, that I
shall introduce it from the translation given by
the learned M. Silvestre de Sacy.*
" Quant a la peche, c'est-a-dire, aux alimens que
Dieu procure aux hommes par la peche du fleuve,
le premier administrateur qui en a fait un objet
de revenu pour le fisc, c'est encore Ebn-Modabbir:
il etablit un bureau expres pour cela ; mais ne
voulant pas donner a ce bureau la denomination
de bureau des peches, qui lui paroissoit ignoble, il
le nomma le bureau pour la plantation des pieux,
et Petablissement des filets. Cette nouvelle inven-
tion fiscale se soutint. On deputoit pour la re-
cette de ce droit un inspecteur, des notaires, et un
cateh, en divers cantons de I'Egypte, tels que le
canal d*Alexandrie, le lac d'Alexandrie, celui de
Nestarawa, Damiette, les cataractes d'Oswan, et
plusieurs autres etangs et lacs. Ces commissaires
partoient pour leur mission, au moment ou le Nil
coinmen9oit a decroitre, etles eaux a se retirer de-
dessus les terres qu'elles avoient couvertes, pour
rentrer dans le lit du fleuve. Anterieurement a
cela, on avoit ferme les ouvertures pratiquees dans
* In his Relation clc I'Egypte of Abd-al-latif, p. 283. note.
F 2
68 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
les chaussees, et les arches des ponts, au moment
ou le Nil avoit cesse de croitre, afin d'empecher
les eaux de se retirer dans le fleuve, et de les
forcer a s'accumuler du cote voisin des terres.
Alors on pla9oit des filets, et on laissoit Peaii
prendre son coiirs ; le poisson, entrain^ par le
courant de I'eau, arrivoit aiix filets, qui Pem-
pechoient d'aller plus loin, et de redescendre avec
I'eau ; il s'amassoit done dans les filets. On le
tiroit ensuite a terre, on le deposoit sur des tapis,
on le saloit, et on le mettoit dans des vases ; et,
lorsqu*il etoit suffisamment fait, on le vendoit sous le
nom de salaisons, et de sir. On ne preparoit ainsi
que le poisson qui etoit de la taille du doigt et au-
dessous. Cette meme espece, quand elle est fraiche,
se nomme ahsaria ; on la mange rotie et frite."
The great consumption of fish in ancient Egypt
is not only attested by Herodotus and other wri-
ters, but by the sculptures of the upper and lower
country ; and the Bible makes allusion to the
*' fishers"* of the Nile, " the sluices and ponds "t
where they were preserved, and the regret with
which the Israelites remembered the fish they ate
so "freely" in Egypt. t
The chase of the hippopotamus §, was a favourite
amusement of the sportsman, in those parts of the
upper country where it was found. It was probably
always rare in Lower Egypt II, though Pliny ^F says
* Isaiah, xix, 8. f Ibid. xix. 10.
\ Exod. xi. 5. " We remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt
freely."
§ In Arabia it has the same name, Fa as el bahr, " river horse "
(mare) ; and in the language of Ethiopia, Yasimt.
[| It is not met with in Upper Egypt, or, indeed, on this side the
second cataract, at the present day. If Pliny, xxviii. 8.
CHAP. VIII. THE HIPPOPOTAMUS. 69
it abounded in the Saite nome : but in Upper
Ethiopia this amphibious animal was common in the
Nile, as at the present day. Though not so
hostile to man as the voracious crocodile, it was
looked upon as an enemy, which they willingly
destroyed, since the ravages it committed at night
in the fields occasioned heavy losses to the farmer * ;
and an additional inducement to kill it was the
value attached to its hide, of which they made
shields, whips t, javelins t, and helmets. § To the
two former purposes it is still applied ; and as Pliny
observes, it retains its hardness perfectly, if pre-
served from moisture.
The whips are known by the name of corbag
(corbaj), and are in very general use in Egypt and
Ethiopia, for riding the dromedary, or for chas-
tising the delinquent peasants ; and it is probable
that it was also applied to the latter purpose by the
ancient Egyptians, since we find an attendant fol-
lowing the steward of an estate, with this imple-
ment of punishment in his hand. ||
The mode of attacking and securing the hippo-
potamus appears, from the sculptures of Thebes,
to have been very similar to that now adopted
about Sennar ; where, like the ancient Egyptians,
* Pliny and Diodoriis are correct in saying " it feeds on the corn-
fields : " but the modern hippopotamus has not retained the dexterity or
the cunning of his ancestors, in walking backwards to deceive his pur-
suers ; mentioned by Plin. viii. 25. : —
" ^tas parentum, pejor avis, tulit
(^Hos) nequiores, mox daturos
Progeniem vitiosiorem."
Hor. iii. Od. vi. 38.
+ Plin. viii. 25. " Tergoris ad scuta galeasque impcnetrabilis."
i Herod, ii. 71. § Vide Diod. i. 35. || Wood-cut, No. 34G.
F 3
70 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
No. 346. Attendant carrying a whip, or corbdg. Thebes-
they prefer aliasing it in the river, to an open
attack on shore : and the modern Ethiopians are
contented to frighten it from the corn-fields by the
somid of drums, and other noisy instruments.
I have already had occasion* to explain the me-
thod of taking this animal : it was entangled by a
running noose, at tlie extremityof a long line wound
upon a reel, at the same time that it was struck by
the spear of the chasseur. '* This weapon consisted
of a broad flat blade, furnished with a deep tooth or
barb at the side, having a strong rope of consider-
able length attached to its upper end, and running
over the notched summit of a wooden shaft, which
was inserted into the head or blade, like a common
javelin. It was thrown in the same manner, but
on striking, the shaft fell, and the iron head alone
remained in the body of the animal, which, on
receiving a wound, plunged into deep water, the
rope having been immediately let out. When
fatigued by exertion, the hippopotamus was dragged
to the boat, from which it again plunged, and the
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 226.
7>,i,ifia,li- :■'>'•'<,' -vfe/i
r-HASE of tJift HI V I-'O POT A M r ,S .
i>- Ohj^seur IS accompanied tjlns tiwl Ji en , dTioittejicjl.«ti' itiKWs <«. noose, over t.ht wi)und.vjl drnmoil.
CHAP. VIII. HIPPOPOTAMUS CHASE. 7'!
same was repeated till it became perfectly ex-
hausted ; frequently receiving additional wounds,
and being entangled by other nooses, which, the
attendants held in readiness, as it was brought
within their reach."
Several representations of this subject have been
found at Thebes, but the destructive thouglitlessness
of the peasants, or the appropriating inclinations of
travellers have, unfortunately, destroyed them, and
few vestiges now remain beyond the figure of the
man, his spear, and a few minor details. I should,
therefore, have been unable to introduce a copy of
this interesting subject, had not the kindness of
Mr. Humphreys, who was fortunate enougli to
obtain a sketch of one of them, furnished me with
it for the accompanying plate.*
The chasseur is here in the act of throwing the
spear at the hippopotamus, which he has already
wounded with three other blades, indicated by
the ropes he holds in his left hand ; and having
pulled the animal towards the surface of the
water, an attendant endeavours to throw a noose
over its head, as he strikes it for the fourth
time. Behind him is his son, holding a fresh
spear in readiness : and in order that there should
be no question about the ropes belonging to the
blades, the fourth is seen to extend from his hand
to the shaft of the spear he is throwing. The
upupa, heron, and other birds are frightened from
the rushes as the boat approaches ; and the fisli,
with a young hippopotamus, seen at the bottom of
* Plate 15.
F d.
72 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
the water are intended to show the communication
of the fenny lake with the Nile.
The mode of attacking the hippopotamus is thus
described by Diodorus* : — " It is chased," says the
historian, " by many persons, each armed with
iron javelins. As soon as it makes its appearance
at the surface of the water, they surround it with
boats, and closing in on all sides they wound it
with blades, furnished with iron barbs, and having
hempen ropes fastened to them, in order that,
when wounded, it may be let out, until its strength
fails it from loss of blood."
The spear they used on these occasions, was evi-
dently of a different construction from that intended
for ordinary purposes, and was furnished, as Dio-
dorus observes, with a rope for letting out the
wounded animal, in the same manner as practised
by the modern Ethiopians : there was sometimes
No. 3)7. Spear used in the chase of the hippopotamus, lliebes.
* Diod. i. 35.
CHAP. VIII. ABODES OF ANIMALS CHANGED. J3
another line fastened to the shaft, and passing over
a notch at its upper end j which was probably in-
tended to give the weapon a greater impetus, as
well as to retain the shaft when it left the blade.
The rope attached to the blade was wound upon
a reel, generally carried by some of the attendants.
It was of very simple construction, consisting of a
half ring of metal, by which it was held, and a bar
turning in it, on which the line or string was wound.
No. 348. A reel held by an attendant. £cni Hassan.
Besides the fish cured, or sent to market for the
table, a very great quantity was set apart expressly
for feeding the sacred animals and birds, — as the
cats, crocodiles, ibises, and others; and it is probable
that some of the large reservoirs, attached to the
temples, were used as well for preserves or piscifics^
where the fish were kept, as to afford a supply of
water for the necessary ablutions of the devout,
and for various purposes connected with religion.
With regard to the number of fish in the river
of Egypt, and the many species said to have been
known there, it may be conjectured that some for-
merly common to the lower parts of the Nile are no
71 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CIIAI'. VIII.
longer met with to the north of the first and second
cataracts : or varieties of the same species may have
been enumerated in the twenty-two mentioned by
Diodorus ; and we even find that the Ethiopians
sometimes brought fish, perhaps of a rare kind
unknown in Egypt, as part of their tribute to
the Egyptians.
That some animals, both aquatic and terrestrial,
as well as several botanical productions, once com-
mon in Egypt, are now confined to the latitudes of
Ethiopia, is well known ; the crocodile, formerly
an inhabitant of Lower Egypt and the Delta*,
now limits the extent of its visits northward, to the
districts about Manfaloot ; and the hippopotamus
is no longer seen in Lower Ethiopia. And if one
was known, some years ago, to wander downwards
into Nubia, below the second cataract, and another
even as far as Damietta, these were accidental oc-
currences, which occasioned as much astonishment
to the people who witnessed their unexpected visit,
as to the bewildered animals themselves.
As usual on such occasions, their unintentional
intrusion, where they could not be objects of terror,
was punished with a readiness, which the same
persons would not have displayed in places where
they are really obnoxious ; and every Turk, or
peasant, who could procure a weapon, was fired with
the proud desire of destroying the intruder, and
showed the same chivalrous feeling, usually called
* Seneca, Nat. QvtEst. iv. 2., says, " at the Heracleotic mouth of tlie
Nile, which is the largest, a battle occurred between the cloli)hius of
the sea and the crocodiles of the river, the former being victorious ! "
CHAP. VIII. THE CROCODILE AND TENTYRITES. 75
forth against an imprudent porpoise, who has ven-
tured to pass the bridges of the EngUsh capital.
But the hippopotamus once Hved in Lower Egypt,
and the city of Papremis, in the Delta, worshipped
it as a sacred animal, worthy of the Egyptian Mars.
Neither the hippopotamus nor the crocodile
appear to have been eaten by the ancient Egyp-
tians. Pliny indeed mentions the medicinal pro-
perties of both of them* ; and Plutarch affirms t that
the people of Apollinopolis used to eat the croco-
dile ; this, however, was not a general custom, but
merely upon a certain occasion connected with
religious superstition, and intended to show their
abhorrence of Typhon the evil genius, of whom it
was an emblem. *' They have likewise," he con-
tinues, " a solemn hunt of this animal upon a par-
ticular day, set apart for the purpose, at which
time they kill as many of them as they can, and
afterwards throw their dead bodies before the
temple of their god, assigning this reason for their
practice, that it was in the shape of a crocodile
Typhon eluded the pursuit of Orus."
This is one of many instances of the different
feelings with which the sacred animals were re-
garded in various parts of Egypt : and as Hero-
dotust observes, "some of the Egyptians consider
the crocodile sacred, while others make war upon
it ; and those who live about Thebes and the
Lake Mceris (in the Arsinoite nome) hold it in
great veneration."
* Plln. xxviii. B. t Pint, dc Kid. s. 50.
t Herod, ii. 09.
76 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
In some places it was treated with the most
marked respect, and kept at a considerable expense ;
it was fed and attended with the most scrupulous
care ; geese, fish, and various meats were dressed
purposely for it ; they ornamented its head with
ear-rings, and its feet with bracelets and necklaces
of gold or artificial stones * ; it was rendered per-
fectly tame by kind treatment ; and after death the
body was embalmed in a most sumptuous manner.
This was particularly the case in the Theban,
Ombite, and Arsinoite nomes ; and at a place now
called Maabdeh, opposite the modern town of
Manfaloot, are extensive grottoes, cut far into the
limestone mountain, where numerous crocodile
mummies have been found, perfectly preserved,
and evidently embalmed with great care.
The people of ApoUinopolis, Tentyris, Hera-
cleopolis, and other places, on the contrary, held
this animal in abhorrence, and lost no opportunity
of destroying it ; and the Tentyrites were so expert,
from long habit, in catching, and even in engaging,
this powerful animal in its native element, that they
were known to follow it into the Nile, and bring it by
force to the shore. Pliny and other ancient authors
mention the wonderful feats performed by them
not only in their own country, but in the presence
of the Roman people : and Strabot says that on
the occasion of some crocodiles being exhibited
at Rome, the Tentyrites who had followed them,
fully confirmed the truth of the report of their
power over those animals ; for, having put them
* Herod, ii. 69. f Strabo, xvii. p. 360., ed. Cas.
CHAP. VIII. NATURE OF THE CROCODILE. 77
into a spacious tank of water, with a shelving
bank artificially constructed at one side, the men
boldly entered the water, and entangling them in a
net, dragged them to the bank, and back again into
the water, in the presence of numerous spectators.
Pliny observes, " that though the Tentyrites are
small men, they have the greatest presence of mind
in their encounters with the crocodile, which is an
animal most dangerous to those who fear it, but
timid when pursued. They even dare to follow it
singly, and swimming after it in the river spring
upon its back, and thrust a bar into its open mouth,
which, being held at the two extremities, serves as
a bit, and enables them to force it to the shore."
Pliny even goes so far as to state that, frightening
them with the voice alone, they compelled them to
render the bodies they had devoured to the (disap-
pointed) embalmers*; but as crocodiles show them-
selves much greater epicures in their mode of eating,
and tear their food to pieces before they swallow it,
we may take the liberty of suggesting the proba-
bility that, in these cases, the animal abandoned the
body on their approach : its usual habit being to
bring it to the shore, and there to tear it up, the
clothes having been stripped off while in the water.
Seneca t accounts for the power possessed by the
Tentyrites over the crocodile from their intrepidity,
and in accordance with Pliny, and with modern ex-
perience, he states it to be " timid before the bold,
* Plin. (viii. 25.) " Voce etiam sola tcrritos, cogunt evomere re-
cenlia corpora ad sepulturam", and xxviii 3.
f Seneca, Nat. Quiest. iv. 2.
78 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
and most ready to attack those who fear it : the
Tentyrites excelHng neither in their nature nor con-
stitution, but in their fearless contempt of it ; for
they follow, and by means of a snare, stop it in its
flight; nor are any killed except those who are
wanting in presence of mind."
" The crocodile is in fact," as I have elsewhere
remarked*, *' a timid animal, flying on the approach
of man, and generally speaking, only venturing to
attack its prey on a sudden ; for whicli reason we
seldom or never hear of persons devoured by it,
unless incautiously standing at the bank of the
river, where its approach is concealed by the water;
and where, by the immense power of its tail, it is
enabled to throw down and overcome the strongest
man, who, being carried instantaneously to the
bottom of the river, has neither the time nor the
means to resist.
" Pliny, like other authors t, has been led into a
common error, that the sight of the crocodile is de-
fective under water, which a moment's consider-
ation, without the necessity of pe^'^owa/ experience,
should have corrected ; for it is at least reasonable
to suppose that an animal, living chiefly on fish,
should, in order to secure its prey, be gifted with
an equal power of sight ; and that offish cannot be
considered defective: but Herodotus, the. father
of history, and of these errors, aflfirmst that it is
totally ' blind under water.*
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 409.
f Ai-istot. Hist. An. ii. 10. " They sec imperfectly in the water."
\ Herod, ii. 68.
CHAP. Vlir. CHASE OF THE CROCODILE. 79
*' Egypt produces two varieties of this animal*,
distinguished by the number and position of the
scales on the neck. One has the front row composed
of six scales, behind which is a cluster of four large
central scales in two lines, with two smaller ones on
each side of the uppermost of these lines ; the other
has in the front row four only, and the disposition
of the other eight is thus : four central scales in two
lines, with one smaller one on each side of the
upper line, and two behind the second and lower
line. The first row of the body consists of six
scales, the former variety having only four. The
other scales of the body are nearly alike in both.
They do not exceed eighteen or nineteen feet,
though travellers have mentioned some of stu-
pendous size."
Herodotus enters into a detail of the habits of
the crocodile, and relates the frequently repeated
story of the trochilust entering the animal's mouth,
during its sleep on the sand banks of the Nile, and
relieving it of the leeches which adhere to its throat.
The truth of this assertion is seriously impugned,
when we recollect that leeches do not abound in
the Nile ; and the polite understanding supposed to
exist, between the crocodile and the bird, becomes
more improbable, when we examine the manner
in which the throat of the animal is formed ;
for having no tongue, nature has given it the
means of closing it entirely, except when in the
* Egy[)t ami TJicbcs, p. 223. note. Coiif. Plin. xxviii. 8.
t licrod. ii. (iH. Plin. viii. 25.
80 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. VIII.
act of swallowing j and during sleep, the throat is
constantly shut, though the mouth is open.
The hostile intrusion of the ichneumon, related
by other writers*, is equally destitute of probability.
That birds living on flies frequently flit about the
crocodile, while lying on the sand, we can readily
believe ; and this circumstance as well as the pre-
sence of a small running bird (a species of chara-
driiisf), which is often seen on the same bank, and
which, loudly chirping on the approach of man may
be supposed to warn the crocodile of danger, very
possibly led to the fable of those visits of the
trochilus t, and the friendly services it rendered the
sleeping crocodile.
Its eggs, as Herodotus and Pliny observe, are
small, considering the size which it afterw-ards at-
tains, and are deposited by the female in the sand,
or in the light loose earth of the river side ; and its
constant desire to enjoy the fresh air, during the
summer, is shown by its lying for a length of time
asleep on the sand banks, with its open mouth turned
to the prevailing wind.
" They had many different modes of catching
it," says Herodotus § ; *' that most worthy of notice
is as follows : — They fasten a piece of pork to a
hook, and throw it into the middle of the stream,
as a bait; then, standing near the water's edge, they
beat a young pig, and the crocodile, being enticed
to the spot by its cries, finds the bait on its way,
and swallowing it is caught by the hook. They
* Plin. viii. 25. f Called sicsac in Arabic
X The name Trochilus signifies running. <) Herod, ii. 70.
CH. VIII. WAR OFTHE OMBITES AND TENTYRITES. 81
then pull it ashore, and the first step is to cover its
eyes with mud, and thus being deprived of sight it
is unable to offer an effectual resistance." We
also find from the sculptures that they attacked the
crocodile with a spear, transfixing it as it passed
beneath the boat in shallow water.
The hatred borne by some of the Egyptians
against the crocodile frequently gave rise to
serious disputes, and the inhabitants of Tentyris,
who had killed and eaten the sacred animal of
Ombos, were attacked with all the fury of religious
feud. On one occasion, after many had been
wounded on both sides, and the Tenty rites were
worsted and compelled to fly, the Ombites secured
a prisoner of the opposing party, and if we may
believe Juvenal*, satiated their revenge by eating
his body. The statement, however, is questionable,
nor is it probable even in that depraved age, when
Egypt had passed under the dominion of the Ro-
mans, that such a scene actually occurred ; and
great licence is always allowed to poets, and still
more is taken by the severity of satire.
* Juv. Sat. XV. 33. 80.
Box in the form of a fish with turning lid, and handle in the shape of a fox.
Mr. Salt's Collection.
VOL. III.
Vignette H. Modem Boats of the Nile. On the opposite bank is a whirlwind of sand.
CHAP. IX.
Arts and Manufactures. — Glass. — Linen. — Dyeing. — Rojie-
maki7ig. — The Papyrus. — LeatJier-cutters. — Potters. —
Cabinet-mahers and Carpenters. — Makers of Chariots and
Coffins. — Coopers. — Boats and War Galleys. — Tin and
other Metals. — Gold Mines. — Gold Working and Gilding.
Of the progi'ess of the ancient Egyptians in many
useful branches of art, we have unquestionable
proofs in the monuments that remain, and from
the evidence of ancient writers. Tlie sculptures
inform us that many inventions were known to
them at the early periods when most other nations
were still in their infancy, which, though generally
ascribed to a much later epoch, are, from the
facility we now have of fixing the chronology of
Egyptian monuments, ascertained to be coeval
with the Exodus, or the bondage of tlie Israelites.
CHAP. IX. DOWNFAL OF ART. 83
The scientific skill they possessed in architecture,
is always a matter of surprise to the traveller who
beholds the stupendous monuments of Egypt ;
whose solid masonry would have defied the ra-
vages of time, and have remained unimpaired to
the present day, had not the destructive hand of
man been employed against them. The invasion
of Cambyses, and the subsequent wars with the
Persians ; the three years' siege of Thebes, by
Ptolemy Lathy r us, which laid several of her build-
ings in ruins, and so completely reduced that
ancient capital, that it was no longer worthy to be
considered an Egyptian city ; the inveteracy of the
Christians against their Pagan predecessors, and
the abhorrence of the Moslems for the monuments
of the idolatrous infidels ; and, lastly, the position
of the temples, which presented themselves to the
mason as a convenient quarry, supplying, at little
labour and expense, abundance of stones for the
erection of new edifices, were the baneful causes
of the downfal of the Egyptian monuments ; but,
though great portions of the finest buildings were
destroyed, sufficient remains to attest their former
grandeur, and to proclaim the wonderful skill and
mechanical knowledge of their founders.
At the period of the Persian invasion, Egypt
was looked upon as the great school of science,
and the repository of all kinds of learning; but
the arts had fallen from the degree of excellence
to which they attained, under the Augustan age
of the 18th dynasty, and though luxury and pri-
vate wealth increased, taste in scidpture and archi-
G 2
84 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
tecture had long since been on the decline, and
minute and highly finished details were substituted
for the simple and dignified forms of an earlier
period. The arts, however, continued to flourish
under the succeeding dynasties, and in the reigns
of Psamaticus and Amasis, the encouragement
given to architecture, sculpture, and painting,
seemed to promise an improvement, if not the
revival, of taste, and arrested for a time their
downfal : but an unexpected event was destined
to bring about their sudden decadence, and the
Persian conquest dealt a blow, from which they
vainly strove to recover in the succeeding reigns of
the Macedonian dynasty; for not only were the
finest monuments destroyed or mutilated, statues*,
works of art, and all the wealth t of the country
carried off to Persia, but the artists themselves were
compelled to leave their homes to follow the con-
querors to their capital, and to commemorate the
victories obtained over Egypt, by the authors of
their own captivity and misfortunes. Thus deprived
of the finest models, humbled by the lengthened
occupation of the country, and losing the only per-
sons capable of directing taste, or encouraging art,
Egypt, already beginning to sink, vainly endea-
voured to struggle with the overwhelming current
of events ; and while Persia was benefited, Egyp-
tian art received its death blow from the invasion
of Cambyses.
* Ptolemy Euergetes is said to have brought back 2o00 statues,
when he invaded the Persian dominions, which had been taken from
Egypt by Cambyses.
■f Conf. Diodor. i. 46. " The silver and gold, the abundance of ivory
and precious stones, carried away by the Persians," and i. 49.
CHAP. IX. STYLE OF THEIR MONUMENTS. 85
The Egyptians had long been renowned for
mathematical science ; but it was not till the power
and wealth of the country were at their zenith,
that full scope was given for its display in the
grand style of public monuments ; a fact, suffi-
ciently indicated by their increase of scale and
vastness of size at that period; the buildings of olden
time being generally of much smaller dimensions
than those of the advanced age of the 18th dynasty.
I particularly allude to the temples and to the colos-
sal statues erected at the latter epoch, which far
exceed in their scale, and the size of the blocks
themselves, the ordinary monuments of an earlier
era, as may be observed in the increased propor-
tions of the grand hall of Karnak, added by Remeses
the Great, and the dimensions of the sitting colossi
of Amunoph, in the plain of Thebes ; or that of
Remeses, at the Memnonium, which weighed about
886 tons, and was brought over land from the
quarries at the cataracts of Syene, a distance of
more than 120 miles.*
Many obelisks, cacli of a single block of granite,
had already been hewn, and transported from the
same quarries, as early at least as the reign of
Osirtasen T., whom I suppose to have been the
.contemporary of Joseph ; and the same me-
chanical skill had already existed even before
that period, as is shown from the construction of
those wonderful monuments the pyramids, near
Memphis, which in the size of the blocks, and
* I shall have occasion to notice this hereafter.
G 3
8() THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
their style of building, evince a degree of archi-
tectural knowledge, perhaps inferior to none pos-
sessed at a subsequent epoch. But it was not
generally called forth in early times ; they were
then contented with monuments of an inferior
scale, and their ordinary buildings were not of the
same gigantic dimensions. A grand work was then
seldom undertaken without an adequate motive,
and the knowledge they possessed was reserved
for particular and extraordinary occasions : but
when riches and the love of show increased, they
extended the size of their temples, and constant
practice having made the means familiar to them,
artisans and engineers vied with each other in
hewing and transporting colossal statues, mono-
liths, and other ponderous monuments, which
served for ornament, and the display of their
mechanical knowledge.
It was not in this branch of science alone that
the Egyptians excelled: the wonderful skill they
evinced in sculpturing or engraving hard stones is
still more surprising ; and we wonder at the means
employed for cutting hieroglyphics, frequently, to
the depth of more than two inches, on basalt, on
syenite, and other stones of the hardest quality.
Nor were they deficient in taste, — a taste too
not acquired by imitating approved models, but
claiming for itself the praise of originality, and
universally allowed to have been the parent of
much that was afterwards perfected, with such
wonderful success, by the most highly gifted of
nations, the ancient Greeks : and no one can look
CHAP. IX. PRESCRIBED RULES OF ART. 87
upon the elegant forms of many of the Egyptian
vases, the ornamental designs of their architecture,
or the furniture of their rooms, without conceding
to them due praise on this point, and admitting,
that however whimsical some of the figures may be
in sacred subjects, they often showed considerable
taste, where the regulations of the priesthood and
religious scruples ceased to interfere.
In their temples they were obliged to conform
to rules established in the early infancy of art,
which custom and prejudice had rendered sacred :
the ancient style was always looked upon with
the highest veneration, and it is probable that from
the same feeling of respect, the formulas and
diction of their books of law or religion continued
the same as in early times ; a custom prevalent
among many people, whatever improvements lan-
guage undergoes ; for neither would the Turkish
Moslem dare to translate the Arabic Qoran, nor the
Cairene to alter it to his own dialect ; and we
might ourselves object to a Bible written in the
style of Robertson or Hume.
Plato and Synesius both mention the stern regu-
lations which forbade their artists to introduce
innovations in religious subjects ; and the more
effectually to prevent this, " the profession of
artist was not allowed to be exercised by common
or illiterate persons, lest they should attempt any
thing contrary to the laws established, regarding
the figures of the deities."
In their household furniture, and the ornamental
objects used in their dwelling houses, they were
G 4
88 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
not restricted by any established rules ; here, as
I have observed, much taste was displayed, and
their vases frequently bear so strong a resemblance
to those of Greece, that we might feel disposed to
consider them borrowed from Greek models, did
not their known antiquity forbid such a conclusion ;
and many have mistaken the ornamental devices,
attached to them, and to other fancy works of
Egyptian art, for the productions of Greek sculp-
tors. Now, that we are acquainted with the dates
of the Egyptian monuments, the square border and
scrolls, so common on Athenian, Sicilian, Etruscan,
and Graeco-Italian vases, are shown to be, from the
most remote time, among the ordinary devices
on cups, and the ceilings of tombs, at Thebes
and other places ; and the graceful curve * of the
Egyptian cornice, which, not confined to architec-
ture, is repeated on vases, and numerous articles
of furniture, was evidently adopted, for the same
ornamental purpose, by the Greeks.
GLASS, PORCELAIN, AND FALSE STONES.
One of the most remarkable inventions of a re-
mote era, and one with which the Egyptians appear
to have been acquainted, at least as early as the
reign of the first Osirtasen, upwards of 3500 years
ago, is that of glass-blowing. The process is re-
presented in the paintings of Beni Hassan, execu-
* Vule vases, woodcut, No. 2i4:, and doorways, woodcuts, Nos. 101,
102, and 104.
CHAP. IX.
INVENTION OF GLASS.
89
ted during the reign of that monarch, and his im-
mediate successors ; and the same is again repeated,
in other parts of Egypt, in tombs of various epochs.
Part 1.
'kUt
Part 2
No. Sia
Part 1. Glass-blowers
a. The same.
Bent Hassan.
Thebes.
The glass at the end of the blowpipe b b, is coloured green.
a is the fire. d a glass bottle.
The form of the bottle and the use of the blow-
pipe are unequivocally indicated in those subjects ;
and the green hue of the fused material, taken from
the fire at the point of the pipe, cannot fail to show
the intention of the artist. But if the sceptic should
feel disposed to withhold his belief on the author-
ity of a painted representation, and deny that the
use of glass could be proved on such evidence, it
may be well to remind him tliat images of glazed
90
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX
pottery were common at the same period, that the
vitrified substance with ^^•hich they are covered is
of tlie same quaUty as glass, and that therefore the
mode of fusing, and the proper proportions of the
ingredients for making glass, were already known
to them ; and we can positively state, that 200
years after, or, about 1500 e.g., they made orna-
ments of glass ; a bead bearing a king's name who
lived at that period, having been found at Thebes,
by my friend Captain Henvey, R. N., the specific
gravity of which, 25*^ 23', is precisely the same as
of crown glass, now manufactured in England.
No. 349. a.
Figs. 1. 2. Glass bottles represented in the sculptures of Thebes.
3. Captain Henvey's glass bead. About the rc.il size.
4. The hieroglj-phics on the bead, containing the name of a monarch who
lived 1500. B. C.
Many glass bottles and objects of various forms
have been met with in the tombs of Upper and Lower
CHAP. IX. EARLY USC OF GLASS. 91
Egypt, some unquestionably of very remote antiqui-
ty, though not readily ascribed to any fixed epoch,
owing to the absence of royal names, indicative of
their date ; and glass vases, if we may trust to
the representations in the Theban paintings, are
frequently shown to have been used for holding
wine, at least as early as the Exodus, 1490 years
before our era.
Till within a few years, prejudice forbade the
belief that the ancients were acquainted with the
manufacture of glass, and many persons could not
be persuaded that the Romans used it, though re-
presented in the paintings of Pompeii with the most
unquestionable truth, and a pane of glass and nu-
merous fragments of broken bottles had been dis-
covered in that excavated city. The fact, however,
became established, and these doubts were silenced;
still it was questioned whether the invention dated
before the destruction of that city ; the glass was
much condemned as of inferior quality ; and the au-
thority of Pliny*, previously disbelieved, was now
welcomed as an old friend, and called forth to
prove that glass was a late discovery of some Phoe-
nician mariners, who having lighted a fire on the
sea shore, and supported their cooking utensils on
blocks of nitre, were taught by the union of the
fused substances the secret of this useful invention.
The Roman naturalist had fixed no time for this
event, and if he spoke of improvements in the art,
introduced in the reign of Tiberius, it was presumed
* Plin. xxxvi. c. 26.
92 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
that, though a vitrified substance was known, its
qualities were not properly understood, and that
its discovery only dated about the Augustan age.
They even objected that under the first emperors,
windows were made of a transparent stone, brought
from Spain and other countries, called Lapis
specularis ; and they hence inferred the imperfect
knowledge of glass.
This stone is now well known under the name
of talc ; it was only used in the houses of the
rich, in litters, or as an ornament to the best
apartments : other persons being content with
linen, horn, or paper.
Such were the feeble arguments brought forward
to disprove the use of glass for vases and for orna-
mental purposes, among the Romans ; but with
much less reason did they apply to its invention in
other countries : and though the Egyptians never
knew the necessity, or rather the annoyance, of
glass windows, under a burning sun, they were well
acquainted with vases of that material ; and the
workmen of Thebes and Memphis, and subse-
quently Alexandria, were famed for the excellent
qualities of glass ware they produced, with which
Rome continued to be supplied, long after Egypt
became a province of the empire. Strabo was in-
formed by a glassmaker of Alexandria* that a pe-
culiar earth was found in Egypt, without which it
was impossible to manufactiu'e certain kinds of
glass of a brilliant and valuable quality ; and some
* Strabo, lib. xvii.
CHAP. IX. A PECULIAR KIND OF GLASS. 93
vases, presented by an Egyptian priest to the
emperor Hadrian*, were considered so curious
and valuable, that they were only used on grand
occasions.
Such too was the skill of the Egyptians in the
manufacture of glass, and in the mode of staining
it of various hues, that they counterfeited with
success the amethyst and other precious stones,
and even arrived at an excellence in the art which
their successors have been unable to retain, and
which our European workmen, in spite of their
improvements in other branches of this manufac-
ture, are still unable to imitate ; for not only do the
colours of some Egyptian opaque glass offer the
most varied devices on the exterior, distributed
with the regularity of a studied design, but the
same hue and the same device pass in right lines
directly through the substance ; so that in what-
ever part it is broken, or wherever a section may
chance to be made of it, the same appearance, the
same colours, and the same device present them-
selves, without being found ever to deviate from
the direction of a straight line, from the external
surface to the interior.
This quality of glass, of which I have seen se-
veral specimens, has been already noticed by the
learned Winkelmann, who is decidedly of opinion
that ** the ancients carried the art of glass making
to a higher degree of perfection than ourselves,
though it may appear a paradox to those who liave
* Vopiscus in Vita Saturnini, c. 8.
94 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
not seen their works in this material."* He de-
scribes two pieces of glass, found at Rome, a few
years before he wrote, which were of tlie quality
above mentioned. t " One of them," he says,
" though not quite an inch in length, and a third
of an inch in breadth, exhibits on a dark and varie-
gated ground, a bird resembling a duck, in very
bright and varied coloiu's, rather in the manner
of a Chinese painting than a copy of nature. The
outlines are bold and decided, the colours beau-
tiful and pure, and the effect very pleasing; in
consequence of the artist having alternately intro-
duced an opaque and a transparent glass. The
most delicate pencil of a miniature painter could
not have traced with greater sharpness the circle
of the eyeball, or the plumage of the neck and
wings ; at which part this specimen has been
broken. But the most surprising thing is, that the
reverse exhibits the same bird, in which it is im-
possible to discover any difference in the smallest
details; whence it may be concluded that the
figure of the bird continues through its entire
thickness. The picture has a granular appearance
on both sides, and seems to have been formed of
single pieces, like mosaic work, united with so
much skill, that the most powerful magnifying glass
is unable to discover their junction.
'* From the condition of this fragment, it was at
first difficult to form any idea of the process em-
ployed in its manufacture : and we should have
* Winkelmann, Orig. de I'Art., lib. i, 2. 19.
f Winkelmann, Ibid.
CHAP. IX. SPECIMENS OF THIS GLASS. 95
remained entirely ignorant of it, had not the frac-
ture shown that filaments of the same colours, as
on the surface of the glass, and throughout its
whole diameter, passed from one side to the other ;
whence it has been concluded that the picture was
composed of different cylinders of coloured glass,
which being subjected to a proper degree of heat,
united by (partial) fusion. I cannot suppose they
would have taken so much trouble, and have been
contented to make a picture only the sixth of an
inch thick, while, by employing longer filaments,
they might have produced one many inches in
thickness, without occupying any additional time
in the process ; it is therefore probable this was
cut from a larger or thicker piece, and the number
of the pictures taken from the same depended on
the length of the filaments, and the consequent
thickness of the original mass.
" The other specimen, also broken, and about
the size of the preceding one, is made in the
same manner. It exhibits ornaments of a green,
yellow, and white colour, on a blue ground, which
consist in volutes, strings of beads, and flowers,
ending in pyramidical points. All the details are
perfectly distinct and unconfused, and yet so very
minute, that the keenest eye is unable to follow
the delicate lines in which the volutes terminate ;
the ornaments, however, are all continued, without
interruption, through the entire thickness of the
piece."
Sometimes, when the specimens were very thin,
they applied and cemented them to a small slab of
96 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
stone of their own size*, which served as a support
at the back ; and by this means they were enabled
to cut them much thinner, and consequently to
increase their number.
Two of the most curious specimens I have
seen, of this kind of glass, have been brought to
England. One is in the possession of my friend,
Capt. Henvey, R. N., to whose kindness I am in-
debted for the copy I have given of it, and of the
bead before mentioned. The other was found in
Egypt by Dr. Hogg.
The quality and the distribution of the colours in
Captain Henvey's specimen are strikingly beautiful :
the total size is about If,, inch square ; and the
ground is of an amethyst hue. In the centre is
a device consisting of a yellow circle, surrounded
by light blue with a bright red border, and on the
four sides shoot forth light blue rays edged with
white. Around this, which is isolated, runs a
square ornament of bright yellow, divided into
distinct parts, formed by openings in each of the
sides, and at the four corners a beautiful device
projects, like a leaf, formed of a succession of
minute lines, green, red, and white, the two last
encircling the green nucleus, which meet in a
common point towards the base, and terminate in
almost imperceptible tenuity. The delicacy of
some of the lines is truly surprising, and not less
the accuracy with which the patterns are executed;
and the brilliancy of the colours is as remarkable
• Mr. Rogers has a specimen applied in this manner.
CHAP. IX. THIS GLASS, HOW COMPOSED. 97
as the harmony maintained in their disposition :
an art then much more studiously attended to,
and far better understood than at the present day.
The secret of making these glass ornaments is
more readily explained from this specimen than
any I have met with. It consists of separate
squares, whose original division is readily dis-
covered in a bright light, as well as the manner of
adjusting the different parts, and of uniting them
in one mass ; and here and there we find that the
heat applied to cement the squares has caused
the colours to run between them, in consequence
of partial fusion from too strong a fire. This fact,
and the disposition of the separate squares, will be
better understood from a reference to the plate*,
from which too some idea may be obtained of the
fineness of the lines composing the devices.
Not only were these various parts made at
different times, and afterwards united by heat,
rendered effective on their surfaces, by means of
a flux applied to them, but each coloured line was
at first separate, and, when adjusted in its proper
place, was connected with those around it by the
same process : and these, as Winkelmann very
properly suggests, were cylinders, or laminae, ac-
cording to the pattern proposed, which passed in
direct lines through the substance, or ground, in
which they were imbedded.
Paw, Goguet, and other antiquaries had long
ago been convinced that glass was known to the
* Vide, plate 17, — Frontispiece.
VOL. III. H
98 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Egyptians, as well as the Phoenicians, at a very
remote period, and the immense emeralds men-
tioned by ancient authors were considered glass
imitations of those precious stones ; a conjecture
rendered still more plausible by the experience
of modern times, which shows that the most noted
jewels of Christian churches are frequently formed
of the same materials. Such were the colossal
statue of Serapis*, in the Egyptian labyrinth, nine
cubits, or tliirteen feet and a half, in height ; an
emerald presented by the king of Babylon to an
Egyi^tian Pharaoh t, which was four cubits, or six
feet, long, and three cubits broad; and an obelisk t
in the temple of Jupiter, which was forty cubits,
or sixty feet, in height, and four cubits broad,
composed of four emeralds. §
The opinion of those writers, respecting the
early invention of glass is now fully confirmed ;
and whether the first idea originated with the
Phoenicians, or their neighbours the Egyptians,
we have satisfactory evidence of its use 3300, or
perhaps 3500 years ago.
Of the different purposes to which glass was
applied by the ancients, Winkelmann gives a fur-
ther account in the same chapter, where he pro-
nounces his opinion that, ** generally speaking, it
was employed more frequently in ancient than in
modern times ; " and cites, as another proof of
* Plin. lib. xxxvii. 5. on the authority of Apion, surnamed Plisto-
nices.
t Plin. loc. cit. on the authority of Theophrastus.
J Plin. loc. cit. See also Theophrastus on stones, s. 44.
^\ To have made them of glass required extraordinary skill.
CHAP. IX. FALSE STONES* 99
their great skill in its manufacture, the vase pre-
served in the Palazzo Barberini, at Rome, which,
from the manner in which the layers of colour were
united " had been mistaken for a real sardonyx."
It is the same that is now in the British Museum,
and known by the name of the Portland vase.*
That the Egyptians, at the early period of the
18th dynasty, were well acquainted not only with
the manufacture of common glass, for beads and
bottles of ordinary quality, but with the art of stain-
ing it of divers colours, is sufficiently proved by the
fragments found in the tombs of Thebes ; and so
skilful were they in this complicated process, that
they imitated the most fanciful devices, and suc-
ceeded in counterfeiting the rich hues, and bril-
liancy of precious stones, t The green emerald,
the purple amethyst, and other expensive gems
were successfully imitated ; a necklace of false
stones could be purchased at a Theban jeweller's,
to please the wearer, or deceive a stranger, by the
appearance of reality ; and the feelings of envy
might be partially allayed, and the love of show be
gratified by these specious substitutes for real jewels.
Pliny states t that the emerald was more easily
counterfeited than any other gem, and considers the
* Some imitations of it were made by Wedgewood.
■f- Seneca says that Democritus first showed the method of poHshing
ivory, and of imitating precious stones (Epist. 90.) ; but this was long
after the art was common in Egypt. Vide Plin. (xxxvi. 26.), " Fit et
album et murrhinum, aut hyacinthos sapphirosque iniitatum (vitrum);"
and Herodot. ii. 69., who calls them XiOiva xi"""^ or melted composition
of stone.
X Non est smaragdo alia imitabilior gemma mendacio vitri ; " and
" ex crystallo tingentiir smaragdi, ncciue est ulla fnuis vitEc
lucrosior," lib. xxvii. c. 12.
II 2
100 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
art of imitating precious stones a far more lucrative
piece of deceit than any devised by the inge-
nuity of man ; Egypt was, as usual, the country
most noted for its skill in this manufacture *,
and Strabot says, " that an earth found there was
the only kind which would answer for certain
rich and variegated compositions." The emeralds
mentioned by Apion and Theophrastus, which,
as before observed, are supposed to have been of
glass, might also be cited to show that the art was
known in a Pharaonic age, if we had not abundant
and far more satisfactory proofs from specimens
found in the ruins of Thebes : and we can readily
believe the assertion of Pliny, that in his time they
succeeded so completely in the imitation as to
render it "difficult to distinguish false from real
stones." t
Many, in the form of beads, have been met with
in different parts of Egypt, particularly at Thebes;
and so far did the Egyptians carry this spirit of
imitation, that even small figures, scarabaei, and
objects made of ordinary porcelain, were counter-
feited, being composed of still cheaper materials,
A figure, which was entirely of earthenware, with
a glazed exterior, underwent a somewhat more
complicated process than when cut out of stone, and
simply covered with a vitrified coating ; this last
could therefore be sold at a low price : it offered
* Vide the memoir of M. Boudet, " Sur I'Art do la Verrerie, n^ en
Egypte," in that valuable work the Description de I'Egypte, vol. ix.
p. 213. I cannot agree with M. B. respecting the trees and the water
at the Natron Lakes, p. 239. note c.
f Strabo, lib. xvi. p. 521. ed.Cas.
X Plin. xxxvii. 12.
CHAP. IX. PRINCIPAL USES OF GLASS. 101
all the brilliancy of the former, and its weight
alone betrayed its inferiority ; by which means,
whatever was novel, or pleasing from its external
appearance, was placed within reach of all classes ;
or at least the possessor had the satisfaction of
appearing to partake in each fashionable novelty.
Such inventions, and successful endeavours to
imitate costly ornaments by humbler materials, not
only show the progress of art among the Egypt-
ians, but strongly argue the great advancement
they had made in the customs of civilised life ; since
it is certain, that until society has arrived at a high
degree of luxury and refinement, artificial wants of
this nature are not created, and the lower classes
do not yet feel the desire of imitating their wealthier
superiors, in the adoption of objects dependent on
taste or accidental caprice.
Glass bugles and beads were much used by the
Egyptians for necklaces, and for a sort of net-
work, with which they covered the wrappers
and cartonage of mummies, arranged so as to
form, by their varied hues, numerous devices and
figures, in the manner of our bead purses ; and
the ladies sometimes amused themselves by string-
ing them for ornamental purposes, as at the present
day.
The principal use to which glass was applied by
the Egyptians, (besides the beads and fancy work
already noticed,) was for the manufacture of
bottles, vases, and other utensils * ; wine was fre-
* The lamps mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 62.), at the festival of
lamps at Sais, were probably glass. Vide infra, p. 112.
H 3
102 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
quently brought to table in a bottle, or handed to
a guest in a cup * of this material, and a body was
sometimes buried in a glass coffin, t Occasionally
a granite sarcophagus was covered with a coating
of vitrified matter, usually of a deep green colour,
which displayed, by its transparency, the sculptures
or hieroglyphic legends engraved upon the stone ; a
process well understood by the Egyptians, and the
same they employed in many of the blue figiu'es of
pottery and stone, commonly found in their tombs ;
the stone, in one case, being covered with a com-
position capable of vitrifying, and then exposed to a
certain degree of heat, until properly melted and
diffused over the surface, and, in the other,
dipped into a mixture, which was vitrified in the
same manner.
Like the Romans, they used glass for mosaic
work, and pieces of various colours were employed
in fancy ornaments, in the figures of deities, in
sacred emblems, and in the different objects for
which inlaid work was particularly adapted, the
quality there used being generally of an opaque
kind. In some of these vitrified compositions, the
colours have a brilliancy which is truly surprising;
the blues which are given by copper are vivid and
beautifully clear ; and one of the reds, which is
probably derived from minium, has all the intense-
ness of rosso antico with the brightness of the
* In Rome the use of glass vases superseded that of gold and silver.
Plin. xxxvi. 26. " Usus ad potandum argenti nietalli et auri pepulit
(vitrum)."
f Alexander the Great was said to have been buried in a glass coffin
at Alexandria.
CHAP. IX. PORCELAIN. 103
glassy material in which it is found ; thus com-
bining the qualities of a rich enamel.
Many of the cups discovered at Thebes, present
a tasteful arrangement of varied hue.-!;, and evince
the great skill of the Egyptians in the manufac-
ture of porcelain; and no one can examine similar
specimens without feeling convinced of the great
experience they possessed in this branch of art.
The manner in which the colours are blended and
arranged ; the minuteness of the lines, frequently
tapering off to an almost imperceptible fineness ;
and the varied directions of tortuous curves, tra-
versing the substance, but strictly conforming to
the pattern designed by the artist, display no or-
dinary skill, and show that they were perfect mas-
ters of the means employed to produce the effect
proposed.
The Eg}^tian porcelain should perhaps be deno-
minated glass-porcelain, as partaking of the quality
of the two, and not being altogether unUke the por-
celain-glass invented by the celebrated Reaumur ;
who discovered, during his curious experiments
on different qualities of porcelain, the method of
converting glass into a substance very similar to
chinaware.
The ground of Egyptian porcelain is generally
of one homogeneous quality and hue, either blue or
green, traversed in every direction bylines or devices
of other colours — red, white, yellow, black, light
or dark blue, and green, or whatever the artist
chose to introduce ; and these are not always
confined to the surface, but frequently penetrate
H 4
104 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
considerably into the ground, sometimes having
passed half, at others entirely through, the fused
substance ; in which respect they differ from the
porcelain of China, where the flowers or patterns
are applied to the surface, and perhaps justify the
use of the term glass-porcelain, which I have
adopted. In some instances, the yellows were put
on after the other colours, upon the surface of the
vase, which was then again subjected to a proper
degree of heat ; and after this, the handles, the
rim, and the base, were added, and fixed by a
repetition of the same process. It was not with-
out considerable risk that these additions were
made, and many vases were broken during the
operation ; to which Martial alludes, in an epigram
on the glass cups of the Egyptians.*
That the Egyptians possessed considerable know-
ledge of chemistry and the use of metallic oxides,
is evident from the nature of the colours applied
to their glass and porcelain ; and they were even
acquainted with the influence of acids upon colour,
being able, in the process of dyeing or staining
cloth, to bring about certain changes in the hues t,
by the same process adopted in our own cotton
works, as I shall show in describing the manufac-
tures of the Egyptians.
It is evident that the art of cutting glass was
known to the Egyptians at the most remote
* Martial, Epig. lib. xiv. 115. Caliccs vitrei : —
" Adspicis ingenium Nili, quibus addere plura
Dum cupit, ah, quoties perdidit auctor opus."
t Plin. XXXV. 11.
CHAP. IX. CUTTING OF GLASS AND STONES. 105
periods, hieroglyphics and various devices being
engraved upon vases and beads, made in the time
of the 18th dynasty ; and some glass, particu-
larly that which bears figures or ornaments in
relief, was cast in a mould. Some have supposed
that the method of cutting glass was unknown to
the ancients, and have limited the period of its
invention to the commencement of the seventeenth
century of our era, when Gaspar Lehmann, at
Prague, first succeeded in it, and obtained a patent
from the emperor Rodolph II. ; but we may infer
from the authority of Pliny, that glass-cutting was
known to the ancients, and that the diamond was
used for the purpose as at the present day, even if
they were ignorant of the art of cutting this stone
with its own dust. ** Diamonds," says that author *,
" are eagerly sought by lapidaries, who set them
in iron handles, for they have the power of pene-
trating any thing, however hard it may be." He
also states that emeralds and other hard stones were
engraved, though in early times it was " con-
sidered wrong to violate gems with any figures
or devices t j" and the diamond was found capable
of cutting those of the hardest quality, " for all
gems," he observes, " may be engraved by the
diamond." t
It is difficult to decide upon the precise method
* Plin. xxxvii. 4. " Expetiintur (adamantis crusta;) a sculptoribus,
ferroque includuntur, nullam non duritiam ex facili cavantes."
•j- Plin. xxxvii. Proem, and xxxiii. 1. He thinks the stone of Poly-
crates' ring was a sardonyx, xxxvii. c. 1.
% Plin. xxxvii. 13. " Verum omnes (gemmae) adamante (scalpi
possunt)."
lOfi THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
adopted by the Egyptians for cutting glass and
hard stones ; but if nothing remains to show the
process they employed, there is sufficient evidence
of its effect ; and their early intercourse with India
may have led them to the knowledge of the
diamond, and of its great utility in engraving
those materials. It is also probable that emery
powder, as I shall hereafter have occasion to ob-
serve, and the lapidary's wheel were used in Egypt;
and there is little doubt that the Israelites learnt
the art of cutting and engraving stones in that
country.*
Some glass bottles were enclosed in wicker
workt, very nearly resembling what is now called
by the Egyptians a damagdn : they were generally
of considerable size, holding from one to two gallons
of fluid; and some of a smaller size, from six to nine
inches in height, were protected by a covering
made of the stalks of the papyrus or cyperus rush,
like the modern bottles containing Florence oil X :
others again appear to have been partly cased in
leather, sewed over them, much in the same man-
ner as some now made for carrying liquids on a
journey. §
Among the many bottles found in the tombs
of Thebes, none have excited greater curiosity
and surprise, than those of Chinese manufacture.
* The stones engraved by the Israelites were the " sardius, topaz,
and carbuncle; the emerald, sapphire, and diamond; the ligure, agate,
and amethyst ; the beryl, onyx, and jasper." Exod. xxviii. 17, IS, 19, 20.
and xxxix. 6.
t Wood-cut, 3.50. Jig. 2. X Wood-cut, 350. /?g. 3.
§ Wood-cut, 350. fg.l.
CHAP. IX.
CHINESE BOTTLES.
107
No. 350. Fig. 1, has apparently leather sewed over the glass.
2, glass damagdn enclosed in wicker work.
3, glass bottle covered with papyrus rush, like the Florence oil flasks. In
the possession of S. Rogers, Esq.
4, a piece of cloth with a border 01 a blue colour. In my possrssion.
presenting inscriptions in that language. The
accidental discovery of a single bottle of this
kind would naturally pass unheeded, and if we
felt surprised that it should be deposited in an
Egyptian sepulchre, conjecture would reasonably
suggest that an accidental visiter in later times
might have dropped it there, while searching for
ancient treasures of a more valuable kind. But
this explanation ceases to be admissible, when we
find the same have been discovered in various
Theban tombs. I myself have seen several, two
of which I brought to England* ; another is
described by the learned Professor Rosellinit,
and found by him "in a previously, unopened
* One is in the British Museum, the other in my possession,
f In his extensive work on the Egyptian monuments, part 2. vol. ii.
p. 3.37.
108
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
tomb, of uncertain date, which," he refers, " from
the style of the sculptures, to a Pharaonic
period, not much later than the 18th dynasty ; "
a fourth is in the museum at Jersey ; another
was purchased by Lord Prudhoe, at Coptos, and
is now in the museum at Alnwick Castle ; two
others are in the possession of Mrs. Bowen ; and
another belongs to Mr. W. Hamilton. They are
about two inches in height : one side presents a
flower, and the other an inscription, containing,
according to the valuable authority of Mr. Davis,
/
Chinese bottles found in the Egyptian tombs.
Fig. 1, in the Museum of Alnwick Castle.
2, brought by me from Thebes.
3, belonging to Mr. W. Hamilton.
4, in my possession. From Thebes.
CHAP. IX. ENAMELLING. 109
(in three out of the eight*,) the following legend
— " The flower opens, and lo I another year."
The quality of these bottles is very inferior, and
they appear to have been made before the manu-
facture of porcelain had attained the same degree
of perfection in China as in after times ; they were
probably brought to Egypt, through India, with
which country I believe the Egyptians to have
traded at a very remote period, and contained some
precious ingredient, whose value may be inferred
from the size of the vase. It cannot be supposed
that the Egyptians, who manufactured porcelain of
far better quality, would have sought or imported
these as articles of value ; we can therefore only
suppose that they were prized for their contents :
and after they were exhausted, the valueless bottle
was applied to the ordinary purpose of holding the
Kohl^ or Collyrium, used by women for staining
their eyelids.
It has been questioned, if the Egyptians under-
stood the art of enamelling upon gold or silver,
though, even in the absence of further evidence,
we might infer it from an expression of Pliny t,
who says : " The Egyptians paint their silver
vases, representing Anubis upon them, the silver
being painted and not engraved." Small gold
figures are frequently found with ornamented
wings, and bodies, whose feathers, faces, or other
coloured parts are composed of a vitrified com-
* I am happy to find that Mr. Davis is preparing an account of these
interesting curiosities.
\ Plin. xxxiii. 9.
110 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
position, let into the metal ; some again appear to
have been really enamelled ; and it is probable that
the early specimens of encaustum were made by
tooling the devices to a certain depth on bronze,
and pouring a vitrified composition into the hol-
low space, the metal being properly heated, at
the same time ; and when fixed, the surface was
smoothed down and polished.
Both the encaustic painting in wax, and that
which consisted in burning in the colours were
evidently known to the ancients, being mentioned
by Pliny*, Ovidt, Martial t, and others ; and the
latter is supposed to have been on the same prin-
ciple as our enamelling on gold. Pliny § says it
was uncertain to whom the invention was due :
some ascribed it to Aristides, as that of perfecting
the art to Praxiteles ; but he supposes " it was
known, long before that time, to Polygnotus, Ni-
canor, and Arcesilaus of Paros."
Bottles of various kinds, glass, porcelain, ala-
baster, and other materials were frequently exported
from Egypt to other countries. The Greeks, the
Etruscans, and the Romans received them as
articles of luxury, which being remarkable for their
beauty were prized as ornaments of the table ; and
when Egypt became a Roman province, part of the
* Ibid. XXXV. II. -f- Ovid, Fast, lib.viii. 275.
" et picta coloribus ustis
Coelestum matrem concava puppis habet."
% Mart. Epig. lib.iv. ep.39.
" Encaustus Phaethon tabula depictiis in hac est;
Quid tibi vis Dipyron qui Phaethonta facis ? "
5 Plin.xxxv.il. " Ceris pingere, ac picturam inurere quis primus
excogitaverit, non constat."
CHAP. IX. MURRHINE VASES LAMPS. Ill
tribute annually paid to the conquerors consisted
of glass vases, from the manufactories of Memphis
and Alexandria.
The intercourse between Egypt and Greece
had been constantly kept up after the accession of
Psamaticus and Amasis ; and the former, the parent
of the arts at that period, supplied the Greeks and
some of the Syrian tribes with the manufactures
they required.
The Etruscans, a commercial people, appear to
have traded with Egypt, about, or a little after the
same period, and we repeatedly find small alabaster
and porcelain bottles in their tombs, which have
all the character of the Egyptian ; and not only
does the stone of the former proclaim by its quality
the quarries from which it was taken, but the form
and style of the workmanship leave no doubt of
the bottles themselves being the productions of
Egyptian artists.
It is uncertain of what stone the murrhine vases,
mentioned by Pliny*, Martial, and other writers,
were made ; it was of various colours, beautifully
blended, and even iridescent, and was obtained in
greater quantity in Carmania than in any country.
It was also found in Parthia and other districts of
Asia, but unknown in Egypt ; a fact quite con-
sistent with the notion of its being fluor-spar,
which is not met with in the valley of the Nile ;
and explaining the reason why the Egyptians
imitated it with the composition known under the
* Plin. xxxvii. 2.
112 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
name of false murrhine, said to have been made at
Thebes *, and Memphis. The description given by
Pliny certainly bears a stronger resemblance to the
fluor-spar, than to any other stone, and the only
objection to this having been murrhine, arises
from our not finding any vases, or fragments, of
it ; and some may still be disposed to doubt
if the stone is known to which the naturalist
alludes. But the fluor-spar appears to have the
strongest claim j and the porcelain of Egypt,
whose various colours are disposed in waving
lines, as if to imitate the natural undulations of
that crystallised substance t, may perhaps be
looked upon with reason as the false murrhine of
the ancients.
It is difficult to say whether the Egyptians em-
ployed glass for the purpose of making lamps or
lanterns : ancient authors give us no direct in-
formation on the subject; and the paintings offer
no representation which can be proved to indicate
a lamp, a torch, or any other kind of light, t
Herodotus § mentions a " fete of burning lamps,"
which took place at Sais, and indeed throughout
* Arrian, in his Periplus of the Red Sea (p. 3.), mentions " XiOiag
va\r]£ TrXtiova yeinj, Kai aWrjg fioppivrjg tijc, ytvontvrjg tv AiodTroKii." At
Medeenet Haboo are numerous agatised pebbles, which were evidently
brought there (the nearest known spot where they are found being
Nubia), but at what period is uncertain. Were they not for some pur-
pose connected with art ? If so, it is not probable they were brought
there by the Christians, though generally found upon the surface of
the mounds.
\ Vide wood-cut, No. 256. fig. 2, 257. /g. 5, and ^U.fg. 1, a.
X In the funeral processions, one person carries what seems to be a
candle or torch.
$ Herodot. ii. 62.
CHAP. IX. LAMPS LINEN. 113
the country, at a certain period of the year, and
describes the lamps used on this occasion as
*' small vases filled with salt and olive oil, on which
the wick floated, and burnt during the whole
night ; " but it does not appear of what materials
those vases were made, though we may reasonably
suppose them to have been of glass.
No. 352. A guard apparently with a lantern. Alabasfron.
The sculptures of Alabastron, again, represent a
guard of soldiers, one of whom holds before him
what resembles, and may be considered, a lantern ;
but here too there is great uncertainty, and neither
of these are sufficient to decide the question.
MANUFACTURE OF LINEN.
The Egyptians, fi'om a most remote era, were
celebrated for their manufacture of linen and other
cloths, and the produce of their looms was ex-
ported to, and eagerly purchased by, foreign nations.
The fine linen, and embroidered work, the yarn,
VOL. III. I
114 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
and woollen stuffs, of the upper and lower country
are frequently mentioned, and were highly es-
teemed. Solomon purchased many of those com-
modities, as well as chariots and horses, from
Egypt ; and Chemmis, tlie city of Pan, retained *
the credit it had acquired in making woollen stuffs,
nearly till the period of the Roman conquest.
Woollen garments were chiefly used by the lower
orders ; sometimes also by the rich, and even by
the priests, who were permitted to wear an upper
robe in the form of a cloak of this material : but
under garments of wool were strictly forbidden
them, upon a principle of cleanliness ; and as they
took so much pains to cleanse and shave the body,
they considered it inconsistent to adopt clothes
made of the hair of animals. No one was al-
lowed to be buried in a woollen garment, in
consequence, as I have already observed t, of its
engendering worms, which would injure the body ;
nor could any priest enter a temple without taking
off this part of his dress.
The quantity of linen manufactured and used in
Egypt was truly surprising, and independent of
that made up into articles of dress, the great
abundance used for enveloping the mummies, both
of men and animals, shows how large a supply
must have been kept ready for the constant demand
at home, as well as for that of the foreign market.
That the bandages employed in wrapping the
dead are of linen, and not, as some have imagined,
* Strabo, xvii. p. 559.
f Vol. I. p. 280., vide Herodot. ii. 81.
CHAP. IX. LINEN AND COTTON. 115
of cotton, has been already ascertained by the most
satisfactory tests ; and though no one, even among
the unscientific inhabitants of modern Egypt, ever
thought of questioning the fact, received opinion
in Europe had till lately decided that they were
cotton ; and it was forbidden to doubt that "the
bands of hyssine linen" said by Herodotus* to
have been used for enveloping the mummies,
were cotton. My own impression had certainly
been that the mummy cloths were invariably
linen, but positive experience had not then con-
firmed my opinion, and I reluctantly yielded to
the universal belief, and concluded that some at
least might be cotton.
The accurate experiments made, with the aid
of powerful microscopes, by Dr. Uret, Mr. Bauer,
Mr. Thompson, and others, on the nature of the
fibres of linen and cotton threads t, have shown
that the former invariably present a cylindrical
form, transparent, and articulated, or jointed like
a cane, while the latter offer the appearance of a
flat ribbon, with a hem or border at each edge ; so
that there is no possibility of mistaking the fibres
of either, except perhaps, when the cotton is in an
unripe state, and the flattened shape of the centre
is less apparent. The results having been found
similar in every instance, and the structure of the
fibres thus unquestionably determined, the threads
of mummy cloths were submitted to the same test,
* Herodot. ii. 8G. " "S-ivcovoq ftviraunjc reXniuom."
■f Vide Dr. Ure's Philosophy of Manufactures, p. 95.
j Vide Mr, Thompson on the Mummy cloth of Egypt.
1 2
116 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
and no exception was found to their being linen,
nor were they even a mixture of hnen and cotton
thread.
The fact of the mummy cloths being linen is
therefore decided. It now remains to inquire into
the nature of the hyssus, in which I confess con-
siderable difficulty presents itself, owing to the
Hebrew shash being translated byssus in the Sep-
tuagint version, and, in our own, *' fine linen* ;"
and to shash being the name applied at this day by
the Arabs to fine muslin, which is of cotton and not
of linen ; for the similarity of the words in these
cognate languages argues in favour t of the same
meaning. On the other hand, Herodotus says the
mummy cloths were *' of hyssine sindon t,'* and
they are found to be invariably linen : he uses the
expression " tree wool" to denote cotton §; and
Julius Pollux adopts the same name ll, distinguish-
ing it also from byssus, which he calls a species of
Indian flax. The use of the two words byssus
and linoji present no difficulty, since they might
be employed, like our flax and linen, to signify
the plant, and the substance made from it.
Cotton cloth, however, was among the manu-
factures of Egypt, and dresses of this material
were worn by all classes. Pliny states that the
Egyptian priests, though they used linen, were
* In Exodus, XXV. 4, " iSvaaov KticXwai^itvrjv;" in Coptic " shens."
■\- There are instances to the contrary, as kussiif " silver," in Hebrew,
and kussub " gold lace," in Arabic, and others.
t Herodot. loc. cit. Sindon is unquestionably linen.
^ Herodot. iii. 47. " Etpioio-i airo ^vXov."
II J. Poll. Onom. vii. 17.
CHAP. IX. FINE LINEN. II7
particularly partial to cotton robes*, and '* cotton
garments," supplied by the government for the
use of the temples t, are distinctly mentioned
in the Rosetta stone. Herodotus and Plutarch t
affirm that linen was preferred, owing as well to
its freshness in a hot climate, as to its great ten-
dency to keep the body clean, and that a religious
prejudice forbade the priests to wear vestments
of any other quality § j we may, however, con-
clude that this refers to the inner portion of the
dress; and the prohibition of entering a temple
with cotton or woollen garments, may have led to
the notion that none but linen were worn by them
at any time. The same custom was adopted by
the votaries of Isis, when her rites were intro-
duced by the Greeks and Romans || ; and linen
dresses were appropriated to those who had been
initiated^ in the sacred mysteries.
Whatever restrictions may have been in force
respecting the use of cotton among the priesthood,
it is probable that other individuals were permitted
to consult their own choice on this point; and it
was immaterial whether they preferred, during life,
the coolness of flax, or the softness of cotton
raiment, provided the body, after death, was en-
* Plin. xix. 8.
-|- " The sacred robes with which the statues of the gods are adorned."
Plut. de Is. s. 78.
t Plut. de Is. S.4.
§ Herodot. ii. 37. " The priests . . . wear only one robe of linen,
and sandals of the byblus. They are not allowed to have any other
vestment, or covering to the feet."
II Plut. de Is. s. 3.
1 Apul. Mctani. lib. xi.
I 3
118 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
veloped in bandages of linen* ; and this regula-
tion accounts for the mummy cloths of the poorest
individuals being invariably found of that material.
It was not only for articles of dress that cotton
was manufactured by the Egyptians : a great
quantity was used for the furniture of their houses,
the coverings of chairs and couches, and various
other purposes; and a sort of cloth was made of
the united filaments of flax and cotton. This is
mentioned by Julius Pollux, who, after describing
the cotton plant as an Eg}'ptian production, and
stating that cloth was manufactured of the *' wool
of its nut," says they sometimes " make the woof
of it, and the warp of linen t ;'* a quality of cloth
still manufactured by the modern Egyptians.
From the few representations which occur in the
tombs of Thebes, it has been supposed that the
Egyptian looms were of rude construction, and
totally incapable of producing the fine linen so
much admired by the ancients ; and as the paint-
ings in which they occur were executed at a very
early period, it has been conjectured that, in after
times, great improvements took place in their
construction. But when we consider with what
simple means oriental nations are in the habit of
executing the most delicate and complicated work,
we cease to feel surprised at the ajiparent imper-
fection of the mechanism, or instruments used
by the Egyptians ; and it is probable that their far-
* In England woollen cloth has been chosen for this purpose, in
order to encoiiraije the staple commodity of the countr}-.
-f- J. Poll. Onom. vii. IT. •
CHAP. IX. NATURE OF THEIR CLOTH. 119
famed "fine linen" mentioned in scripture, and by
ancient writers*, was produced from looms of the
same construction as those represented in the paint-
ings of Thebes and Eilethyas. Nor was the praise
bestowed upon that manufacture unmerited t ; and
as I have already observed, the quality of some
linen in my possession fully justifies it, and excites
equal admiration at the present day, being, to the
touch comparable to silk, and not inferior in tex-
ture to our finest cambric.
The mummy cloths are generally of a very
coarse quality; and little attention was bestowed
on the disposition of the threads, in the cloths of
ordinary manufacture. Mr. Thomson, who exa-
mined many specimens of them, is of opinion that
the number of threads in the warp invariably
exceeded those of the woof, occasionally even by
four times the quantity; and as his observations
are highly interesting, I shall introduce an extract
from his pamphlet on the subject.
" Of the products of the Egyptian loom, we
know scarcely more than the mummy pits have
disclosed to us ; and it would be as unreasonable
to look through modern sepulchres for specimens
and proofs of the state of manufacturing art
amongst ourselves, as to deduce an opinion of the
skill of the Egyptians, from those fragments of
cloth, which envelope their dead, and have come
down, almost unchanged, to our own time. The
* Pliny allows that the Egyptians invented the art of weaving, vii. 56. ;
and Athenaeus ascribes it to Pathymias the Egyptian. Dcipn. lib. ii.
f Some was so fine that it obtained the. appellation of " woven air."
I 4
120 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
curious or costly fabrics which adorned the living,
and were the pride of the industry and skill of
Thebes, have perished ages ago. There are, how-
ever, amongst these remains, some which are not
unworthy of notice, which carry us back into the
workshops of former times, and exhibit to us the
actual labours of weavers and dyers of Egypt,
more than 2000 years ago.
*' The great mass of the mummy cloth, em-
ployed in bandages and coverings, whether of
birds, animals, or the human species, is of coarse
texture, especially that more immediately in
contact with the body, which is generally im-
pregnated with resinous or bituminous matter.
The upper bandages, nearer the surface, are finer.
Sometimes the whole is enveloped in a covering
coarse and thick, and very like the sacking of the
present day: sometimes in cloth coarse and open,
like that used in our cheese-presses, for which it
might easily be mistaken. In the college of sur-
geons are various specimens of these cloths, some
of which are very curious.
" The beauty of the texture, and peculiarity in
the structure of a mummy cloth given to me by Mr.
Belzoni, was very striking. It was free from gum,
or resin, or impregnation of any kind, and had
evidently been originally white. It was close and
firm, yet very elastic. The yarn of both warp and
woof was remarkably even and well spun. The
thread of the warp was double, consisting of two
fine threads twisted together. The woof was
single. The warp contained 90 threads in an
CHAP. IX. OTHER SPECIMENS OF CLOTH. 121
inch ; the woof, or weft, only 4^4. The fineness
of these materials, estimated after the manner of
cotton yarn, was about thirty hanks in the pound.
" The subsequent examination of a great variety
of mummy cloths showed, that the disparity be-
tween the warp and woof belonged to the system
of manufacture, and that the warp generally had
twice or thrice, and not seldom four times, the
number of threads in an inch, that the woof had:
thus, a cloth containing 80 threads of warp in the
inch, of a fineness about 24 hanks in the pound,
had 40 threads in the woof: another with 120
threads of warp, of 30 hanks, had 40; and a third
specimen only 30 threads in the woof. These have
each respectively double, treble, and quadruple the
number of threads in the warp that they have in
the woof. This structure, so different from modern
cloth, which has the proportions nearly equal, ori-
ginated, probably, in the difficulty and tediousness
of getting in the woof, when the shuttle was thrown
by hand, which is the practice in India at the present
day, and which there are weavers still living old
enough to remember the universal practice in this
country.'*
Mr. Thomson then mentions some fragments
of mummy cloths, sent to England by the late
Mr. Salt, which he saw in the British Museum.
They were " of different degrees of fineness ;
some fringed at the ends, and some striped at the
edges." " My first impression," he continues
"on seeing these cloths, was that the finest kinds
were muslin^ and of Indian manufacture, since
122 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
we learn from the *'Periplus of the Erythrean
Sea," ascribed to Arrian, but more probably the
work of some Greek merchant himself engaged
in the trade, that muslins from the Ganges were an
article of export from India to the Arabian gulf:
but this suspicion of their being cotton was soon
removed by the microscope of Mr. Bauer, which
showed that they were all, without exception, linen.
Some were thin and transparent, and of very deli-
cate texture. The finest appeared to be made of
yarns of near 100 hanks in the pound, with 140
threads in the inch in the warp, and about 64 in
the woof. A specimen of muslin in the museum
of the East India house, the finest production of
the Dacca loom, has only 100 threads in an inch
in the warp, and 84 in the woof; but the surprising
fineness of the yarns, which, though spun by hand,
is not less than 250 hanks in the povmd, gives
to this fabric its unrivalled tenuity and lightness.
" Some of the cloths were fringed at the ends,
and one, a sort of scarf, about four feet long, and
twenty inches wide, was fringed at both ends.
Three or four threads twisted together with the
fingers to form a strong one, and two of these
again twisted together, and knotted at the middle
and at the end to prevent unravelling, formed the
fringe, precisely like the silk shawls of the pre-
sent day.
*' The selvages of the Egyptian cloths are gene-
rally formed with the greatest care, and are well
calculated by their strength to protect the cloth
from accident. Fillets of strong clotli or tape also
CHAP. IX. STRIPED BORDERS OF THE CLOTH. 123
secure the ends of the pieces from injury, show-
ing a knowledge of all the little resources of mo-
dern manufacture. Several of the specimens, both
of fine and coarse cloth, were bordered with blue
stripes of various patterns, and in some alternating
with narrow lines of another colour. The width
of the patterns varied from half an inch to an
inch and a quarter. In the latter were seven blue
stripes, the broadest about half an inch wide nearest
the selvage, followed by five very narrow ones, and
terminated by one an eighth of an inch broad.
Had this pattern, instead of being confined to the
edge of the cloth, been repeated across its whole
breadth, it would have formed a modern gingham,
which we can scarcely doubt was one of the articles
of Egyptian industry.
" A small pattern about half an inch broad formed
the edging of one of the finest of these cloths,
and was composed of a stripe of blue, alternating
with three lines of a fawn colour, forming a sim-
ple and elegant border. These stripes were pro-
duced in the loom by coloured threads previously
dyed in the yarn. The nature of the fawn colour
I was unable to determine. It was too much
degraded by age, and the quantity too small to
enable me to arrive at any satisfactory conclusion.
Though I had no doubt the colouring matter of
the blue stripes was indigo, I subjected the cloth
to the following examination. Boiled in water
for some time, the colour did not yield in the
least; nor was it at all affected by soap, nor by
strong alkalies : sulphuric acid, diluted only so
124 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
far as not to destroy the cloth, had no action on
the colour. Chloride of lime gradually reduced,
and at last destroyed it. Strong nitric acid, drop-
ped upon the blue, turned it orange, and in the
same instant destroyed it. These tests prove the
colouring matter of the stripes to be indigo.
"This dye was unknown to Herodotus, for he
makes no mention of it. It was known to Pliny,
who, though ignorant of its true nature, and the
history of its production, has correctly described
the most characteristic of its properties, the emis-
sion of a beautiful purple vapour when exposed to
heat. Had his commentators been acquainted with
the sublimation of indigo, it would have saved
many learned doubts. We learn from the Periplus,
that it was an article of export from Barbarike on
the Indus, to Egypt, where its employment by the
manufacturers of that country, probably from a re-
mote period, is clearly established by the speci-
mens here described."
I have a piece of cloth, brought from Thebes by
Mr. Arundel, which offers a very good instance of
the coloured border mentioned by Mr. Thomson.
It is of ordinary quality, the number of threads in
the inch are ninety-six in the warp, and thirty-four
in tlie woof; and the border consists of one broad
band and six narrow stripes, of a blue colour, evi-
dently dyed with indigo; the band which is nearest
the selvage is one inch and two tenths in breadth,
the others consist each of two threads, in the direc-
tion of the warp, with the exception of the inner-
most one, which is of five threads ; and the dividing
CHAP. IX. SPECIMENS OF FINE LINEN. 125
line between the fourth and fifth is varied by the in-
troduction of a blue thread down the centre.* The
rest of the cloth has the usual yellowish tinge,
"supposed to arise from some astringent prepara-
tion employed for its preservation," which, accord-
ing to Mr. Thomson, imparts to water a similar
colour, but offers no trace of tannin. " In none
of the specimens I have examined," he adds, *'did
either gelatine or albumen, or solution of iron, af-
ford any precipitate ; but the subacetate of lead
produced a cloud, indicating the presence of ex-
tractive matter."
It is evident that the colour was imparted to the
threads previous to the cloth being madet, as the
blue remains unaltered ; and the cloths with broad
coloured borders are the more curious, as they
illustrate the representations in the paintings, and
show that they were similar to those made by the
looms used in the age of the Pharaohs of the l6th
and 18th dynasties, which occur in the tombs at
Eilethyas and Thebes ; and it is curious to see
the Nubians wearing shawls with the same blue
borders, manufactured in the valley of the Nile, at
the present day.
Another piece of linen, which I obtained at
Thebes, has 152 threads in the warp, and 7I in
the woof, to each inch ; it is of a much darker hue
than the cloth just mentioned, and was perhaps
* Vide woodcut, No. 350. fg. 4.
-|- As was the case with the threads used by the Israelites, Exod.
XXXV. 25. "And all the women that were wise-hearted did spin with
their hands, and brought that which they had spun, both of blue, and
of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine linen."
126 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
dyed with the carthamus tinctorius *, or safF-flower,
wliich Mr. Thomson supposes to have been used for
tliis purpose. The piece of fine hnen, previously
alluded to, is of the same light brown colour.
Some idea may be given of its texture, from the
number of threads in the incht, which is 540 (or
270 double threads) t in the warp ; and the limited
proportion of 110 in the woof §, shows the justness
of Mr. Thomson's observation, that this disparity
belonged to their " system of manufacture," since
it is observable even in the finest quality of cloth.
Another very remarkable circumstance in this
specimen is, that it is covered with small figures
and hieroglyphics, so finely drawn, that here and
there the lines are with difficulty followed by the
eye ; and as there is no appearance of the ink
liaving run in any part of the cloth, it is evident
they had previously prepared it for this purpose.
Pliny cites four qualities of linen, particularly
noted in Egypt: the Tanitic, and Pelusiac, the
Butine, and the Tentyritic ; and mentions in the
same place 1 1 the cotton tree of Egypt, which he
confines to the upper country. He also states that
the quantity of flax, cultivated in Egypt, was ac-
counted for, by their exporting linen to Arabia and
* I am still doubtful if it was indigenous in Egj'pt.
f Some of our cambric has only IGO in an inch of the warp, and
140 of the woof.
t Vide supra, p. 120. and 121.
§ The Egyptians, instead of throwing the shuttle, appear to have
put in the threads by means of a rod with a hook at either end. Vide
wood-cuts, No. 91. and 334.
|] Plin. xix. c. 1. " Superior pars ^Egypti in Arabiam vcrgens gignit
fruticem, quem aliqui gossipion vocant, plures xylon, et ideo lina inde
facta xylina."
CHAP. IX. CORSLETS OF AMASIS. 127
India; and the quality of that produced by the
Egyptian looms is shown to have been far superior
to any other.
The threads used for nets were remarkable for
their fineness ; '* and so delicate were some of
them," says Pliny*, "that they would pass through
a man's ring, and a single person could carry a
sufficient number of them to surround a whole
wood. Julius Lupus, who died while governor of
Egypt, had some of these nets, each string of
which consisted of 150 threads ; a fact perfectly
surprising to those who are not aware, that the
Rhodians preserve to this day, in the Temple of
Minerva, the remains of a linen corslet, presented
to them by Amasis, king of Egypt, whose threads
are composed each of 365 fibres ; and in proof of
the truth of this, Mutianus, who was thrice consul,
lately affirmed at Rome, that he had examined it;
and the reason of so few fragments remaining was
attributable to the curiosity of those who had
frequently subjected it to the same scrutiny."
Herodotus mentions this corslet t, and ano-
ther, presented by Amasis to the Lacedaemonians,
which had been carried off by the Samians; *'it
was of linen, ornamented with numerous figures oi
animals, worked in gold and cotton. Each thread
of the corslet was worthy of admiration, t For,
though very fine, every one was composed of 360
other threads, all distinct; the quality being similar
to that dedicated to Minerva, at Lindus, by the
same monarch."
* Plin. xix. 1 . f Herodot. ii. 182., and iii. 47»
% Herodot. iii. 47.
128 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Many of the Egyptian stuffs presented various
patterns worked in colours by the loom, inde-
pendent of those produced by the dyeing or print-
ing process, and so richly composed, that they
vied with cloths embroidered with the needle.*
The art of embroidery t was commonly practised
in Egypt. We find that the Hebrews, on leav-
ing the country, took advantage of the know-
ledge they had there acquired to make a rich
" hanging for the door of the tent, of blue, and
purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen, wrought
with needlework t ; " a coat of fine linen was em-
broidered for Aaron ; and his girdle was *' of fine
twined linen, and blue, and purple, and scarlet, of
needlework." §
The gold thread used for these purposes is sup-
posed to have been beaten out with the hammer ||,
and afterwards rounded ; and even the delicate
net made by Vulcan, which was so fine that the
gods themselves were unable to see it, is re-
presented to have been forged on his anvil with
the hammer. ^ Pliny mentions cloth woven with
gold threads, sometimes entirely of those materials,
without any woollen or linen ground, as were the
* Martial, xiv. Epigr. 50.
" Haec tibi Memphitis tellus dat munera ; victa est
Pectine Niliaco jam Babylonis acus."
■]■ Vide Ezekiel, xxvii. 7. " Fine linen, with broidered work from
^gJ'Pt-"
J Exod. XXVI. 36., xxvii. 16., xxxvi. 37., and xxxviii. 18.
^ Exod. xxviii. 39., and xxxix.29.
II Conf. Exod. xxxix. 3. " And they did beat the gold into thin
plates, and cut it into wires, to work it in the blue, and in the purple,
and in the scarlet, and in the fine linen."
H Houi. Od. viii. 274.
CHAP. IX. SILVER THREAD WIRE. 129
garment of Agrippina *, the tunic of Heliogabalus t,
and that worn by Tarquinius Priscus, mentioned
by Verrius.t
** Coloured dresses," says Pliny §, " were known
in the time of Homer, from which the robes of
triumph were borrowed: and from the Phrygians
having been the first to devise the method of giving
the same effect with the needle, they have been
called Phrygiones. But to weave cloth with gold
thread was the invention of an Asiatic king. Atta-
ins II, from whom the name Attalic was derived :
and the Babylonians were most noted for their
skill in weaving cloths of various colours."
The question still remains undecided respecting
the time when silver thread came into use ; and as
no mention of silver stuffs occurs in the writings
of ancient authors, it has been supposed that its
introduction was of late date. Silver wire, however,
was already known in Egypt at the remote epoch
of the 18th dynasty, as is proved by being found
at Thebes of the time of the third Thothmes:
nor is there any reason to suppose it was then a
novel invention; and it was probably known and
used as early as gold wire, which we find attached
to rings bearing the date of Osirtasen the First.
This wire is supposed not to have been drawn,
like our own, through holes in metal plates, but
to have been beaten out, and rounded with the
* Plin. xxxiii. 3. " Auro textili sine alia matcric."
f Lamprid. Vit. Heliog. c. 23.
I Plin. loc. cit. 5) Plin. viii. 48.
II Attains, king of J?crgauius.
VOL. III. K
130 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
file : but the appearance of some found at Thebes
almost justifies the conclusion that a mode of
drawing it was not unknown to them ; and the
omission of every representation of the process in
the paintings cannot be adduced as an argument
against it, since they have also failed to introduce
the casting of metals, and various other arts, with
which they were undoubtedly acquainted.
It is reasonable to suppose that wire-drawing was
first attempted with the most ductile metals, that
gold and silver were first used, and brass and iron at
a much later period ; and this is further argued
by the probability of wire having been originally
employed for ornamental purposes. Gold thread
and wire were always made entirely of that metal,
even to the time of the latter Roman emperors* :
nor are there any instances of flattened wire wound
round silk or linen threads, or of silver or other
wire gilt, in the ruins of Herculaneum and
Pompeii. That the Egyptians had arrived at
great perfection in the art of making the thread is
evident, from its being sufficiently fine for weaving
into cloth, and for embroidery; and the exceeding
delicacy of the linen corslet of Amasis f, on which
numerous figures of animals were worked in gold,
required a proportionate degree of fineness in the
gold thread used for the purpose.
The coloured dresses represented in the Egyptian
paintings, worn by women of rank, and by the
deities, much resemble our modern chintzes, in the
* Probably till the reign of Aurelian.
f Heroil. iii. 47.
CHAP. IX. USE OF MORDANTS. 131
style of their patterns, though it is probable that
they were generally of linen instead of calico:
some were probably worked with the needle*, and
others woven with gold threads.
I have already observed that the Egyptians pos-
sessed a knowledge of the effect of acids on colour,
and submitted the cloth they dyed to one of the
same processes adopted in our modern manufac-
tories ; as is plainly pointed out by Pliny in the fol-
lowing passage t : — '* Pingunt et vestes in ^gypto
inter pauca mirabih genere, Candida vel postquam
attrivere illinentes non coloribus, sed colorem sor-
bentibus medicamentis. Hoc cum fecercj non ap-
paret in velis : sed in cortinam pigmenti serventis
mersa, post momentum extrahuntur picta. Mi-
rumque, cum sit unus in cortina colos, ex illo
alius atque alius fit in veste, accipientis medica-
menti qualitate mutatus, nee postea ablui potest:
ita cortina non dubie confusura colores si pictos acci-
peret." *' Moreover in Egypt they stain cloths in a
wonderful manner. They take them in their ori-
ginal state, quite white, and imbue them, not with a
dye, but with certain drugs which have the power
of absorbing and taking colour. When tliis is
done, there is still no appearance of change in the
cloths ; but so soon as they are dipped into a bath of
the pigment, which has been prepared for the
purpose, they are taken out properly coloured.
The singular thing is, that though the bath con-
* " Candida Sidonio perUicent pectora filo,
Quod Nilotis acus pcrcu.ssuin pcctiiic Seriiiu
Solvit." Lucan. Phars. x. HI.
t Plin. XXXV. II.
K 'Z
132 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
tains only one colour, several hues are imparted to
the piece, these changes depending on the nature
of the drug employed : nor can the colour be
afterwards washed off; and surely if the bath had
many colours in it, they must have presented a
confused appearance on the cloth."
From this it is evident that the cloth was pre-
pared before steeping ; the momentary effect he
mentions could only be produced by the powerful
agency of mordants ; and they not only used
them to make the cloth take the colour equally,
but also to change the hues.
Whether the Egyptians really understood the
principle, on which the salts and acids of the mor-
dants acted, or calculated their effects solely from
the experience they had acquii'ed, it is difficult to
decide. They had long been used in Europe, before
their chemical agency was properly explained ; and
when the term mordant was first applied by the
French dyers, they imagined "that the intention
of passing the substances, which were to be dyed,
through certain saline liquors, was to corrode
something that opposed the entering of the co-
louring principle, and to enlarge the pores of the
substances ; " (the effect of acids in changing the
hues being a later discovery;) we cannot there-
fore positively prove that the Egyptians had a
knowledge of chemistry, though from their long
experience, and from their skill in the employ-
ment of the metallic oxides, we may find strong
reasons to infer it. For if at first ignorant of
the reason of such changes, it is probable that in
CHAP. IX. KNOWLEDGE OF CHEMISTRY. 133
process of time they were led to investigate the
causes, by which they were effected.
Many discoveries, and even inventions, are more
the effect of chance than of studious reflection, and
the principle is often the last to be understood. In
discoveries this is generally the case, in inventions
frequently. But when men have observed, from
long practice, a fixed and un deviating result, their
curiosity naturally becomes excited, the thirst for
knowledge, and above all the desire of benefiting
by the discovery, prompt them to scrutinise the
causes to which they are so much indebted ; and
few people, who have made any advance in the
arts of civilised life, long remain ignorant of the
means of improving their knowledge.
We may therefore suppose, some general notions
of chemistry, or at least of chemical agency, were
known to the Egyptians ; and the beautiful colours
they obtained from copper, the composition ofvarious
metals, and their knowledge of the effects produced
on different substances by the salts of the earth, tend
to confirm this opinion.
The Egyptian yarn seems all to have been spun
with the hand, and the spindle is seen in all the
pictures representing the manufacture of cloth.
Spinning was principally the occupation of women* ;
but men also used the spindle, and were engaged
in the loom ; though not as Herodotus t would
lead us to suppose, to the exclusion of women,
* Vide wood-cut, No. 91. Vol, II. p. 60.
t Herodot. ii. 35. Sophocles, (Edip. Col. v. 352. makes the sanio
remark.
K 3
134
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Tart 1.
d -i e f g h i
No. 353. Parti. Men engaged in spinning, and making a sort of net-work.
2. The horizontal loom, or perhaps mat-making.
Bent Hassan.
who he pretends undertook the duties of men in
other countries, '* by going to market, and en-
gaging in business, while the men, shut up in
the house, worked at the loom." Men, to this
day, are employed in making cloth, in Egypt and
in other countries, but it cannot be said that
they have relinquished their habits for those of
women ; and we find from the paintings executed
by the Egyptians themselves, far more authentic
and credible than the casual remarks of a Greek,
that both men and women were employed in
manufacturing cloth.
*' Other nations," continues the historian, " make
cloth by pushing the woof upwards, the Egyptians,
on the contrary, press it down ; " and this is con-
CHAP. IX.
LOOMS.
135
firmed by the paintings * which represent the pro-
cess of making cloth ; but at Thebes, a man who
is engaged in making a piece of cloth, with a co-
loured border or selvage, appears to push the woof
upwards, the cloth being fixed above him, to the
upper part of the frame. They had also the
horizontal loom, which occurs at Beni Hassan and
other places.
Csy^nf:
fi!-t
u.\
No. 351.
Fig. 1. A piece of cloth on a frame. Eiletkyas.
2. A loom. Tliehes.
/,- is ;i shuttle, not thrown, but put in with the hand. It had a hook at each end. Vide
woodcut. No. 91. fig. 2.
* In woodcut, No. 91./^. 2. Vol. II. p. 60.
K ']t
136
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
In the hieroglyphics over persons employed
with the spindle, it is remarkable that the word
saht^ which in Coptic signifies to twist, con-
stantly occurs. The spindles were generally small,
being about one foot three inches in length, and
several have been found at Thebes, and are now
preserved in the museums of Europe.* They
were generally of wood, and in order to increase
Spindles.
2 1
British and Berlin Mtiseiims.
Fig. 1 is a sort of cane split at the top to give it a globular shape.
2 has the head of gypsum.
3 entirely of wood.
4 of plaited or basket work.
5 the loop to put over the twine.
6 a ring of wood for securing the twine.
* One of those in the British Museum, which I found at Thebes,"
had some of the linen thread with it. Vide wood-cut, No. .335. ^g. 2.
CHAP. IX. SPINDLES. 13^
their impetus in turning, the circular head was
occasionally of gypsum, or composition : some,
however, were of a light plaited work, made of
rushes, or palm leaves, stained of various colours,
and furnished with a loop of the same materials,
for securing the twine after it was wound.*
Besides the use of the spindle t, and the form
of the loom, we find the two principal purposes,
to which flax was applied, represented in the
paintings of the tombs : and at Beni Hassan the
mode of cultivating the plant, in the same square
beds now met with throughout Egypt, (much re-
sembling our salt-pans,) the process of beating the
stalks, and making them into ropes, and the manu-
facture of a piece of cloth, are distinctly pointed
out.
It is, however, possible that the part of the
picture, where men are represented pouring water
from earthen pots, may refer to the process of
steeping the stalks of the plant, after they were
cut ; the square spaces would then indicate the
different pits in which they were immersed, con-
taining some less, some more, water, according to
the state in which they were required ; and this
is rendered more probable by the flight of steps,
for ascending to the top of the raised sides of the
pits, which would not have been introduced if the
level ground were intended.
* Vide wood-cut, No. 353. _/%. 5. Another of wood, ^g. 6.
■f- The ordiniiry distaff does not occur in these subjects, but we may
conclude they had it; and Homer mentions one of gold, given to Helen
by " Alcandra, the wife of Polybus," who lived in Egyptian Thebes.
Od.iv. 131.
138
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
■Sac
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CHAP. IX, PREPARATION OF THE FLAX. 139
The steeping, and the subsequent process of
beating the stalks with mallets, illustrate the fol-
lowing passage of Pliny* upon the same subject:
— *' The stalks themselves are immersed in water,
warmed by the heat of the sun, and are kept down
by weights placed upon them ; for nothing is
lighter than flax. The membrane, or rind, be-
coming loose is a sign of their being sufficiently
macerated. They are then taken out, and re-
peatedly turned over in the sun, until perfectly
dried ; and afterwards beaten by mallets on stone
slabs. That which is nearest the rind is called
stupa, * tow,' inferior to the inner fibres, and fit
only for the wicks of lamps. It is combed out
with iron hooks, until all the rind is removed.
The inner part is of a whiter and finer quality.
Men are not ashamed to prepare it
After it is made into yarn, it is polished by
striking it frequently on a hard stone, moistened
with water ; and when woven into cloth it is again
beaten with clubs, being always improved in pro-
portion as it is beaten."
They also parted and cleansed the fibres of the
flax with a sort of comb, probably answering to the
iron hooks mentioned by Pliny ; two of which,
found with some tow at Thebes, are preserved in
the Berlin museum ; one having twenty-nine, the
other forty-six, teeth, t
The border of some of their cloths consists of
long fringes, formed by the projecting threads of
* Pliii. xix. I. t Vide wood-cut, No. 357.
140
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
the warp, twisted together, and tied at the end
in one or more knots, to prevent their unravelling,
*' precisely,"as Mr. Thomson observes, "like the silk
shawls of the present day;" and specimens of the
same borders, in pieces of cloth found in the tombs,
may be seen in the British Museum, and other
collections.*
The sculptures, as well as the cloths which have
been discovered, perfectly bear out Herodotus
in his statement that they had the custom of
leaving a fringe to their pieces of linen t, which,
when the dresses were made up, formed a border
round the legs ; but they do not appear to have
No. 557
iWUUHIIIHUHlH
1: 2
No. 358
Berlin Museum .
No. .357 wooden comb found with some tow.
No. 358 fig. 1 netting needle of wood in Mr. Salt's collection.
2 part of another of bronze, of later date, found by me at Berenice.
3 wooden plane for smoothing or pressing cloth. Frmn Thchcs.
* Vide woodcut, No. 330.
\ Hcrodot. ii. 81.
CHAP. IX. CARPETS. 141
been universally worn. This kind of dress he
calls calasiris. When the fringe was wanting, the
border was hemmed, which had the same effect
of preventing the unravelling of the cloth. The
Jews wore a similar kind of fringed dress, and
Moses * commanded the children of Israel to
*' make them fringes in the borders of their gar-
ments, . . . and . . . put upon the fringe of the
borders a ribband of blue."
Besides the process of making cloth, that of
smoothing, or calendering, is represented in the
paintings ; which appears to have been done by
means of wooden rods, passed to and fro over the
surface ; but from the appearance of some of the
fine linen found in the tombs, we may conjecture
that much greater pressure was sometimes used for
this purpose, and such as could only be applied by
a press, or cylinders of metal.
For smoothing linen after washing, a wooden
substitute for what we call an iron was used by
the Egyptian washerwomen, some of which have
been found at Thebes, six inches in length, made
of athul or tamarisk wood, t
I have had occasion to observed that the Egyp-
tians had carpets, which, according to Diodorus§,
were spread for the sacred animals, and are noticed
by Homer 11 , as a very early invention ; they were of
wool ^, but of their quality we are unable to form '
* Numbers, xv. 38.
f Vkle wood-cut, No. 358. Jig. 3.
X Vol. II. p. 201. S) Diodor. i. 34.
II Horn. Od. iv. 124., and called lajicta, the moilern name of a carpet.
11 As ill Homer, " Ta7r>/r« . . . jiaXaKov tpiuio," loc. cit.
142 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
any opinion, the fragments discovered in the tombs
being very imperfectly preserved. Some portions of
woollen work have been found at Thebes, which
presented the appearance of a carpet ; and a small
rug was lately brought to England, and is now in
the possession of Mr. Hay, whose valuable collec-
tion of drawings from Thebes and other parts of
Egypt, I have already noticed.
This rug is eleven inches long by nine broad. It
is made like many carpets of the present day, witli
woollen threads on linen string. In the centre is the
figure of a boy in white, with a goose above it, the
hieroglyphic of " child," upon a green ground ;
around which is a border composed of red and
blue lines ; the remainder is a ground of yellow,
with four white figures above and below, and one
at each side, with blue outlines and red ornaments;
and the outer border is made up of red, white, and
blue lines, with a fancy device projecting from it,
with a triangular summit, which extends entirely
round the edge of the carpet. Its date is uncer-
tain ; but from the child, the combination of the
colours, and the ornament of the border, I am in-
clined to think it really Egyptian.
I have also been informed by Lord Prudhoe, that
in the Turin museum he met with " some speci-
mens of worked worsted upon linen, in which the
linen threads of the weft had been picked out, and
the coloured worsted sewed on the warp."
CHAP. IX. TWISTING LEATHER THONGS. 143
ROPE-MAKING.
I have noticed the use of flax for making ropes,
string, and various kinds of twine ; for large ropes,
however, of ordinary quality, and for common
purposes, the leefi or fibres of the date tree, were
employed, as at the present day ; and many speci-
mens of these durable materials have been found
in the excavations of Upper and Lower Egypt.
In a tomb at Thebes, of the time of Thothmes
III., is represented the process of twisting thongs of
leather, which, as it is probably the same as that
adopted in rope-making, may be properly intro-
duced here.
The ends of four thongs were inserted and fast-
ened into a hollow tube, from the side of which a
bar projected, surmounted by a heavy metal ball ;
and the man, who twisted them, held the tube in
his right hand, whirling it round, as he walked
backwards, by means of the impetus given by the
ball. A band, attached to a ring at the other end
of the tube, went round his body, in order to
support it and give it a free action, and the ring
turned upon a nut, to prevent the band itself from
twisting.
At the other extremity of the walk, a man, seated
on the ground, or on a low three-legged stool, let
out the separate thongs, and kept them from be-
coming entangled. Behind him sat another, who,
with the usual semicircular knife, cut the skin into
strips, as lie turned it round ; showing that what
144-
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
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CHAP. IX. TWISTING LEATHER THONGS. 14)5
we term the circular cut was known to the ancient
Egyptians at this early period, and that they had
already adopted this mode of obtaining the longest
thongs from a single piece of leather. * When
finished, the twisted thongs were wound round a
hollow centre, through which the end was passed,
and repeatedly bound over the concentric coils in
the same manner as ropes.
Some, indeed, have supposed the present subject
to represent rope-making; but the presence of the
skin on the left, and the shoemakers on the right,
forming a continuation of the picture, sufficiently
prove that they are engaged in preparing leathern
thongs for sandals, and other similar purposes.
Their nets were made of flax-string t, both for
fishing and fowling : and portions of them have
been discovered at Thebes, and are preserved in
our European museums. The netting neediest
were of wood, very like our own, split at each end,
and between ten and eleven inches in length, and
others were of bronze, with the point closed.
Sieves were often made of string, but some of
an inferior quality, and, for coarse work, were con-
structed of small thin rushes or reeds (very similar
to those used by the Egyptians for writing, and
frequently found in the tablets of the scribes) ; a
specimen of which kind of sieve is preserved in
* This calls to mind the fable of Dido's purchasing as much land in
Africa, as could be covered by a bull's hide, upon which she built
Byrsa, the origin of Carthage. Vir. jEn. i. 368.
f Conf. Isaiah, xvii. 9. " They that work in fine flax, and they that
weave networks." Vide Plin. 19, 1., and stiprd, p. 127.
% Fide wood-cut. No. 338. fgs. 1, 2.
VOL. III. L
146 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
the Paris museum. The paintings also represent
them made of the same materials ; and indeed it is
probable that the first they used were all of this
humble quality, since the hieroglyphic indicating a
sieve is evidently borrowed from them.
THE PAPYRUS.
The Egyptians were not less famed for their
manufacture of paper, than for the delicate texture
of their linen. The plant from which it was made,
the Cyperus papyi'us of modern botanists, mostly
grew in Lower Egypt, in marshy land, or in shallow
brooks*, and ponds, formed by the inundation of
the Nile, where they bestowed much pains on its
cultivation.
The right of growing, and selling it, belonged,
as I have already observed, to the government,
who made a great profit by its monopoly ; and
though we frequently find mention of the use of
the byblus or papyrus, for constructing canoes or
rude punts, for making baskets, parts of sandals,
sails, and for numerous other common purposes, it
is evident, that we are to understand, in these in-
stances, some other species of the numerous family
of Cyperus ; which too is unequivocally shown by
Strabo, when he distinguishes the ordinary from
" the hieratic byblus."
The papyrus, or byblus hieraticus, of the geo-
grapher, our Cyperus papyrus, was particularly
* Isaiah, xix. 7. '* The paper reeds by the brooks, by the mouth
of the brooks."
CHAP. IX. PAPYRUS. 147
cultivated in the Sebennytic nome * : other parts
of the Delta also produced it, and probably even
some districts in Upper Egypt. The paper made
from it differed in quality ; being dependent upon
the growth of the plant, and the part of the stalk
whence it was taken ; and we find many of the
papyri which have been preserved vary greatly in
their texture and appearance. They are generally
fragile, and difficult to unrol, until rendered pliant
by gradual exposure to steam, or the damp of our
climates ; and some are so brittle that they appear
to have been dried by artificial means.
We are however less surprised at the effect of the
parched climate of Upper Egypt, when we consider
the length of time they have been kept beyond
the reach of moisture, and observe that our draw-
ing paper, after a very few years, becomes so dry
in that country, that it is too brittle to fold with-
out breaking. Indeed, those papyri which have not
been exposed to the same heat, being preserved in
the less arid climate of Lower Egypt, still preserve
their pliability ; and a remarkable proof of this is
shown in one brought by me from Memphis, which
may be bent, and even twisted in any way, without
breaking, or without being more injured than a
piece of common paper. The hieroglyphics from
their style show it to be of an ancient Pharaonic age,
and, what is remarkable, they present the name of
the city, where the papyrus was found, Menofre, or
Memphis.
* Plin. xiii. 11.
L 2
148 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
The mode of making papyri, was this : — The
interior of the stalks of the plant, after the rind
had been removed, was cut into thin slices in the
direction of their length, and these being laid on a
flat board, in succession, similar slices were placed
over them at right angles * ; and their surfaces being
cemented together by a sort of glue, and subjected
to a proper degi'ee of pressure, and well dried, the
papyrus was completed. The length of the slices
depended of course on the breadth of the intended
sheet, as that of the sheet on the number of slices
placed in succession beside each other, so that
though the breadth was limited, the papyrus might
be extended to an indefinite length.
The papyrus is now no longer used, paper
from linen rags and other materials ha\'ing super-
seded it ; but some few individuals, following the
example of the Cavaliere Saverio Landolina Nava,
of Syracuse, continue to make it ; and sheets from
the plant, which still grows in the small rivulet
formed by the fountain of Cyane, near Syracuse,
are offered to travellers, as curious specimens of an
obsolete manufacture. I have seen some of these
small sheets of papyrus ; the manner of placing
the pieces is the same as that practised in former
times ; but the quality of the paper is very inferior
to that of ancient Egypt, owing either to the pre-
paration of the slices of the stalk, before they are
glued together, or to tlie coarser texture of the
* The slices which were placed longways were called by the Romans
stamen, the others crossing them subtemen, like the warp and the woof
in cloth.
CHAP. IX. PLINY's account OF THE PAPYRUS. 149
plant itself, certain spots occurring here and there
throughout the siu'face, which are never seen on
those discovered in the Egyptian tombs.
Pliny thus describes * the plant and the mode of
making paper : — " The papyrus grows in the marsh
lands of Egypt, or in the stagnant pools left inland
by the Nile, after it has returned to its bed, which
have not more than two cubits in depth. The root
of the plant is the thickness of a man's arm ; it has a
triangular stalk, growing not higher than ten cubits
(fifteen feet), and decreasing in breadth towards the
summit, which is crowned as with a thyrsus, con-
taining no seeds, and of no use except to deck the
statues of the gods. They employ the roots as
fire-wood, and for making various utensils. They
even construct small boats of the plant ; and out of
the rind, sails, mats, clothes, bedding, and ropes ;
they eat it either crude or cooked t, swallowing
only the juice ; and when they manufacture paper
from it, they divide the stem, by means of a kind of
needle, into thin plates, or laminae, each of which
is as large as the plant will admit . . . ."
'* All the paper is woven upon a tablet, and is
continually moistened with Nile water, which being
thick and slimy, furnishes an effectual species of
glue. § In the first place, they form upon a table,
perfectly horizontal, a layer the whole length of
the papyrus ; which is crossed by another placed
* Plin. xiii. 11. f Conf. Diod. i. 80.
t Plin. xiii. 12.
§ It is scarcely necessary to correct this misconception of Pliny, or
to suggest the necessity of something more tenacious than Nile water,
L 3
150 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
transversely, and afterwards inclosed within a press.
The different sheets are then hung in a situation
exposed to the sun, in order to dry, and the pro-
cess is finally completed by joining them together,
beginning with the best. There are seldom more
than twenty * slips, or stripes, produced from one
stem of the plant.
" Different kinds of broad paper vary in breadth.
The best is thirteen digits broad ; the hieratic only
eleven; the Fanniant ten, and the amphitheatric
nine. The Saitic is still narrower, being only the
breadth of the mallet ; and the paper used for busi-
ness is only six digits broad. Besides the breadth,
the fineness, thickness, whiteness, and smoothness
are particularly regarded ; . . . when it is coarse
it is polished with a (boar's) tooth, or a shell ; but
then the writing is more readily effaced, as it does
not take the ink so well.'*t
Pliny is greatly in error when he supposes that
the papyrus was not used for making paper, before
the time of Alexander the Great, since we meet
with papyri of the most remote Pharaonic periods ;
and the same mode of writing on them is shown
from the sculptures to have been common in the
age of Suphis, or Cheops, the builder of the Great
Pyramid, more than 2000 years before our era.
It is uncertain until what period paper made ot
the papyrus continued in general use — but there is
* Some read " vicinae," not " viginti."
f So called from Fannius, who had a manufactory at Rome for pre-
paring paper. Plin. xiii. 12.
J Vide Plin. xiii. 12., where he makes other observations on the
quality of paper.
CHAP. IX. PARCHMENT. OTHER MATERIALS. 151
evidence of its having been occasionally employed,
to the end of the seventh century, when it was
superseded by parchment. All public documents,
under Charlemagne and his dynasty, were written
on this last, and the papyrus was then entirely
given up.
Parchment, indeed, had been invented long be-
fore, and was used for writing, as early as the year
250 before our era, by Eumenes, king of Per-
gamus ; who being desirous of collecting a library
which should vie with that of Alexandria, and
being prevented by the jealousy of the Ptolemies
from obtaining a sufficient quantity of papyrus,
had recourse to this substitute ; and its invention
at Pergamus claimed, and secured to it, the lasting
name of Pergamena.* It was made of the skins
of sheep and calves ; but to the former the name
of parchment is more correctly applied, as to the
latter that of vellum, t
The monopoly of the papyrus in Egypt so in-
creased the price of the commodity, that persons
in humble life could not afford to purchase it for
ordinary purposes; few documents, therefore, are
met with written on papyrus, except funeral rituals,
the sales of estates, and official papers, which were
absolutely required : and so valuable was it, that
they frequently obliterated the old writing, and
inscribed another document on the same sheet.
For common purposes, pieces of broken pottery,
* Called also membrana by the Romans.
f From vcUiis, " a skin," or vitulinum, " of calf."
L 4
152 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
stone, board, and leather were used ; an order to visit
some monument, a soldier*s leave of absence, ac-
counts, and various memoranda, were often written
on the fragments of an earthenware vase ; an artist
sketched a picture, which he was about to introduce
in a temple or a sepulchre, on a large flat slab of
limestone, or on a wooden panel prepared with a
thin coating of stucco : and even parts of funeral
rituals were inscribed on square pieces of stone, on
stuccoed cloth, or on leather. Sometimes leather
rolls were substituted for papyri, and buried in the
same manner with the deceased ; they are of an
early period, and probably adopted in consequence
of the high price of the papyrus ; but few have
hitherto been found at Thebes.
In the infancy of society, various materials were
employed for writing, as stones, bricks, tiles, plates
of bronze, lead and other metals, wooden tables *,
the leaves and bark of trees, and the shoulder bones
of animals. Wooden tablets covered with wax,
were long in use among the Romans, as well as
the papyrus t; and the inner bark of trees t,
and pieces of linen §, had been previously adopted
by them.
Many Eastern people still write on the leaves
of trees, or on wooden tablets, and waraka con-
* These wooden tablets, which are covered with a glazed composi-
tion capable of receiving ink, were used by the Egyptians long after they
had papyri, and they are still common in schools at Cairo in lieu of
our slates. One is represented in wood-cut. No. 90. Jig. 5.
t Whence the word " paper j" as in byblus, or biblus, originated the
name bible or book.
X Called liber, whence the Latin name liber, " a book."
§ Liv. iv. 7, xiii. 20. " Linteis Hbris," about the year 440 B.C.
CHAP. IX. OUR MODERN PAPER. 153
tinues to signify, in Arabic, both " a leaf" and
" paper."
The early Arabs committed their poetry and
compositions to the shoulder-bones of sheep : they
afterwards obtained the papyrus paper from Egypt,
on which tlie poems called Moallaqdt were written,
in gold letters ; and after their conquests in Asia
and Africa, these people so speedily profited by, and
improved the inventions of the nations they had
subdued, that parchment was manufactured in
Syria, Arabia, and Egypt, which in colour and
delicacy might vie with our modern paper. It
speedily superseded the use of the papyrus, and
continued to be employed until the discovery of
the method of making paper from cotton and silk,
called Carta homhycina, which is proved by Mont-
faucon to have been known at least as early as
A. D. 1100 ; and is supposed to have been invented
about the beginning of the ninth century. Being
introduced into Spain from Syria, it was denomin-
ated Carta Damascena ; and some manuscripts on
cotton paper are said to exist in the Escurial,
written in the eleventh century.
It is a matter of doubt to what nation, and period,
the invention of paper manufactured from linen
ought to be ascribed. The Chinese were acquainted
with the secret of making it from various vegetable
substances long before it was known in Europe ;
the perfection to which they have carried this
branch of art continues to excite our admiration ;
and " the librarian Casiri relates," according to
Gibbon, " from credible testimony, that paper was
154 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
first imported from China to Samarcand a. h. 30
(a.d. 652), and invented^ or rather introduced, at
Mecca a.h. 88 (a.d. 710)."*
It may, however, be questioned whether it was
made from linen at that early period, and we have
no positive proof of linen paper being known even
by the Saracens, prior to the eleventh century. The
Moors, as might be expected, soon introduced it
into Spain, and the Escurial library is said to contain
manuscripts written on this kind of paper, as old as
the twelfth century.t
But paper of mixed cotton and linen, which was
made at the same time, appears to have been in
more general use ; and linen paper continued to be
rare in most European countries till the fifteenth
century. That it was known in Germany as early
as the year 1312, has been satisfactorily ascertained
by existing documents, and a letter on linen paper,
written from Germany to Hugh Despencer, about
the year 1315, is preserved in the Chapter-house at
Westminster ; which, even to the water-mark, re-
sembles that made at the present day.
It was not till the close of the sixteenth century
that paper was manufactured in England. The
first was merely of a coarse brown quality, very
similar to that of the modern Arabs, whose skill in
this, as in many arts and sciences, has been trans-
ferred to people once scarcely known to them, and
then greatly their inferiors ; and writing or printing
* Gibbon, vol. ix. c. 51. p. 379.
f Some doubt the existence of any MS. on linen paper before the
year 1270 ; but an Arabic version of the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, in
the Escurial, dates in the beginning of the 13th century.
CHAP. IX. TANNERS AND CURRIERS. 155
paper was not made in London before 1690 ; France
and Holland having, till that time, supplied us with
an annual importation, to the amount of nearly
100,000 pounds.
TANNERS AND LEATHER CUTTERS.
The tanning and preparation of leather was also
a branch of art, in which the Egyptians evinced
considerable skill ; the leather-cutters, as I have
already observed, constituted one of the principal
subdivisions of the third caste ; and a district of the
city was exclusively appropriated to them, in the
Libyan part of Thebes.
Leather is little capable of resisting the action of
damp, the salts of the earth, or excessive dryness,
so that we cannot reasonably expect to find it suf-
ficiently well preserved, to enable us to judge of
its quality ; but the fineness of that employed for
making the straps, placed across the bodies of mum-
mies, discovered at Thebes, and the beauty of
the figures stamped upon them, satisfactorily prove
the skill of "the leather cutters*," and the anti-
quity of embossing : some of these bearing the
names of kings, who ruled Egypt about the period
of the Exodus, or 3300 years ago.
Many of the occupations of their trade are por-
trayed on the painted walls of the tombs at Thebes.
They made shoes, sandals, the coverings and seats
of chairs or sofas, bow-cases, and most of tlie orna-
* rUic Vol. II. p. 7.
156 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
mental furniture of the chariot ; harps were also
adorned with coloured leather, and shields and
numerous other things were covered with skin
prepared in various ways. They also made skins
for carrying water, wine, and other liquids ; and
the custom of coating them within with a re-
sinous substance was the origin, as I have already
observed*, of that acquired taste, which led the
Egyptians to imitate the flavour it imparted to wine,
even in their earthen amphorae.
Part of the process of curing the skins is intro-
duced in the sculptures ; and that of dyeing them
is mentioned in the Bible t, being doubtless bor-
rowed by the Jews from Egypt. In one instance,
a man is represented dipping the hide into a vase,
probably containing water, in which it was suffered
to soak, preparatory to the lime being applied to
remove the hair j a process very similar to that
adopted at the present day in Egypt and other coun-
tries. The Arabs prefer the acrid juice of a plant
growing in the desert, for the purpose, as its effect
is still more rapid, and as it has the advantage of
making the skin better and more durable.
This plant is the Periploca Secamone ; its stalks
contain a white milky juice, which exudes from it
when bruised, and which is so acrid as to be highly
injurious to the eye, or to the wounded skin. It
supports itself by winding around every neighbour-
ing shrub, and its not ungraceful stalks appear to
have been occasionally used by the ancient Egyp-
* Vol. II. p. 158.
f Exod. XXV. 5. " i^rid rains' skins dyed red."
CHAP. IX. MODE OF CUTTING LEATHER. 157
tians, for the same ornamental purpose as the ivy,
in forming festoons. But there is no evidence of its
having been employed by them in curing skins,
though they seem to have been well acquainted
with the properties of the plants which grew in the
deserts, as well as in the valley of the Nile; and
however we might be inclined to suppose that, in
the sculptures of Thebes representing the occupa-
tions of curriers, they are pounding something of
the kind for this purpose, the absence of every in-
dication of the contents of the vase, or mortar,
leaves it undecided if it be the periploca, or lime,
salt, or other substance.
According to the Arabs, the method of preparing
skins with the periploca, or Ghulga, is as follows :
— '* The skins are first put into flour and salt for
three days, and are cleansed of all the fat and
impurities of the inside. The stalks of the plant
being pounded between large stones, are then put
into water, applied to the inner side of the skin for
one day, and the hair having fallen ofl", the skin is
left to dry for two or three days, and the process is
completed."
The mode of stretching or bending leather over
a form is frequently represented at Thebes ; and it
is curious to observe, that the semicircular knife *,
used by the ancient Egyptians between 3000 and
4000 years ago, is precisely similar to that of our
modern curriers.
As in other trades, the tools they employed were
* Vide wood-cut, No. 55. fig. c. Vol. I. p. 350.
158 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
neither numerous nor complex, and their means
might sometimes appear inadequate, did we not see
the beautiful work performed at the present day,
in China, India, and other countries, where the
implements are equally simple. The semicircular
knife, a sort of chisel, the common awl, (specimens
of which have been found at Thebes, similar to
our own,) a stone for polishing the leather, the
cutting table, the bending form, the horn, and a
few other utensils, were all that occurred in the
shop of the shoemaker, or the currier ; and a
prepared skin, the emblem of their trade, was sus-
pended, together with ready-made shoes and other
articles, to indicate their skill, and to invite a cus-
tomer.
The shops of an Egyptian town were probably
similar to those of Cairo *, and other Eastern
cities: which consist of a square room, open in
front, with falling or sliding shutters, to close it at
night; and the goods ranged in shelves, or suspended
against the walls, are exposed to the view of those
who pass. In front is generally a raised seat, where
the owner of the shop and his customers sit, during
the long process of concluding a bargain, previous
to the sale and purchase of the smallest article ; and
here an idle lounger frequently passes whole hours,
less intent on benefiting the shopkeeper, than in
amusing himself with the busy scene of the passing
crowd.
Among the many curious customs introduced in
* Vide Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 9. and 10., wood-cuts.
CHAP. IX.
SHOPS.
159
the paintings, and still retained in the East, is
that of holding a strap of leather, or other sub-
stance, with the toes, whicli from their being always
free, and unincumbered with tight shoes, retain
their full power and pliability ; and the singular, I
No. 360. Currier holding a strap of leather with his toes, while cutting it. Thebes,
b b are straps tied up, and deposited in the shop.
may say, primitive, mode of tightening a thong
with the teeth, while sewing a shoe, is also por-
trayed in the paintings of the time of the third
Thothmes.
It is probable that as at the present day, they
ate in the open front of their shops, exposed to the
view of every one who passed ; and to this custom
Herodotus may allude, when he says '* the Egyp-
tians eat in the street." *
In Eastern towns, no regal arms, or gilded in-
scription, proclaim the patronage t of *' his Ma-
jesty," and no picture or description, affixed to the
shop, announce the trade of the owner; being
* Herodot. ii. 35.
f A Turk in London once observed, " How very changeable your
king must be, if all the shops having royal arms have been successively
tried by him."
160
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
No. 361. Part 1. Shoemakers.
Fart 2, Men employed in polishing a column. Thebes.
Fig. 1. making a hole with an awl. 2. tightening a thong with his teeth.
b b sandals hanging up in the shop. c to / various tools.
thought SLifficiently shown by the goods exposed
for sale; but this does not prevent the mcon-
sistency, perhaps profanation, of attaching a reli-
gious sentence, or the name of the Deity, to walls,
wliich hourly witness an attempt to defraud the in-
experienced customer. Nor is there any direct evi-
dence that the ancient Egyptians affixed the name
and trade of the owner of the shop, though the pre-
sence of hieroglyphics, denoting this last, together
with the emblem which indicated it, may seem to
arffue in favour of the custom ; and the absence of
many individuals* names in the sculptures is readily
accounted for by the fact, that these scenes refer
CHAP. IX. TANNERS AND CURRIERS. l6l
to the occupation of the whole trade, and not to
any particular person.
Of all people, we may suppose Egyptian shop-
keepers most likely to display the patronage received
from royalty ; the name of a monarch being so often
introduced in the most conspicuous manner on
the coffins of private individuals, and in the paint-
ings of the tombs; many of the scarabasi they
wore presenting the name of a king; and the
most ordinary devices being formed to resemble a
royal oval. But whether or not they had this cus-
tom, or that of affixing the name and occupation of
the tradesman, it is difficult to determine ; and
indeed in those cities where certain districts were
set apart for particular trades, the latter distinction
was evidently uncalled for, and superfluous.
The great consumption of leather in Egypt, and
the various purposes to which skins *, both in the
tanned and raw state, were applied, created a
demand far greater than could be satisfied by the
produce of the country : they therefore imported
skins from foreign countries, and part of the
tribute, levied on the conquered tribes of Asia
and Africa, consisted of hides, and the skins of wild
animals, as the leopard, fox, and others ; wliich
are frequently represented in the paintings of
Thebes, laid before the throne of the Egyptian
monarch, together with gold, silver, ivory, rare
* Skins were considered of great value by many ancient people : the
rewards in the games at Chemmis in Upper Egypt, were skins, cattle
and cloaks, and we find the same custom among the Greeks. Vide
Horn. II. xxii. 159. Herodot. ii. 91.
VOL. III. M
16^2
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
woods, and the various productions * of each van-
quished country.
For tanning they used the pods of the Sontf or
Acacia (Acacia or Mimosa Nilotica), the acanthus
of Strabo and other writers ; which was cultivated
in many parts of Egypt, being also prized for its
timber, and gum ; and it is probable that the
bark and wood of the Rhus oxyocanthoides, a
native of the desert, were employed for the same
purpose.t
FULLERS.
Many persons, both men and women, were en-
gaged in cleaning cloth, and stuffs of various kinds ;
and the occupations of the fuller form some of the
numerous subjects of the sculptures. It is, how-
ever, probable that they were only a subdivision of
No. 362.^ Fullers. Beni Hassan.
a i inclined tables, cc the water running oS* into the trough below.
* Some of these tributes put us in mind of the objects which came
in Solomon's ships : " gold, and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks,"
1 Kings, X. 22.; see also Athenaeus (lib. v.), where he mentions the
presents brought to Ptolemy Philadelphus.
f The Arabs also use the bark of the Acacia Sayal for tanning ; it
grows in the desert, but not in the valley of the Nile.
CHAP. IX. POTTERS. l63
the dyers, whose skill in colouring cloth I have
already noticed.
POTTERS.
A far more numerous class were the potters ;
and all the processes of mixing the clay, and of
turning, baking, and polishing the vases, are re-
presented in the tombs of Thebes and Beni
Hassan.
They frequently kneeded the clay with their feet,
and after it had been properly worked up, they form-
ed it into a mass of convenient size with the hand,
and placed it on the wheel *, which, to judge from
that represented in the paintings, was of very
simple construction, and turned with the hand.
The various forms of the vases were made out by
the finger during their revolution ; the handles, if
they had any, were afterwards affixed to them ;
and the devices and other ornamental parts were
traced with a wooden or metal instrument, pre-
vious to their being baked. They were then suf-
fered to dry, and for this purpose were placed on
planks of wood ; they were afterwards arranged
with great care in trays, and carried, by means of
the usual yoke, borne on men's shoulders, to the
oven.
Many of the vases, bottles, and pans of ordi-
nary quality were very similar to those made in
Egypt at the present day, as we learn from the
* Some supposed the potter's wheel to have been invented by Ana-
charsis, but, as Strabo observes, it was already known to Homer
Strabo, vii. p, 209. Seneca Epist. 90. Plin. vii. 56.
M 2
164
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
CHAP. IX. POTTERS. l65
representations in the paintings, and from those
found in the tombs, or in the ruins of old
towns ; and judging from the number of Coptic
words apphed to the different kinds, their names
were as varied as their forms. Coptos and its
vicinity were always noted for this manufacture ;
the clays found there were peculiarly suited for
porous vases to cool water ; and their qualities are
fully manifested, at the present day, in the goolleh
or hardak bottles, of Qeneh.
That the forms of the modern goollehs are bor-
rowed from those of an ancient time is evident, from
the fragments found amidst the mounds, which mark
the sites of ancient towns and villages, as well as
from the many preserved entire ; and a local tra-
dition affirms that the modern manufacture is bor-
rowed from, and has succeeded without interruption
to, that of former days.
It is impossible to fix the period of the invention
of the potter's wheel, and the assertion of Pliny,
who attributes it to Coroebus the Athenian*, is not
only disproved by probability, but by the positive
fact that it was known at the earliest epoch of
Egyptian history, of which the sculptures have
been preserved, previous to the arrival of Joseph,
and consequently long before the foundation of
Athens.
But Pliny's chapter of inventions abounds with
errors of this kind, and serves to show liow com-
monly the Greeks adopted the discoveries of other
* Plin. vii. 36.
M 3
I6t) THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
nations, particularly of Egypt and Phoenicia, and
claimed them as their own : even the art of cutting
stones is attributed to Cadmus, of Thebes ; and
Thales of Miletus was said to have enlightened the
Egyptians, under whom he had long been stu-
dying*, by teaching them to measure the altitude of
a pyramid, or other body, by its shadow t, at the
late period of 600 b. c. Though we may pardon,
we must smile at, the vanity of the Greeks, who
pretended to the merit of pointing out to their
instructors a discovery t, of which men so skilful
in astronomy and mathematics could not have
been ignorant ; but we must express our surprise
at the simplicity of modern writers, who believe
and repeat so improbable a story.
The Egyptians displayed much taste in their
gold, silver, porcelain, and glass vases, but when
made of earthenware, for ordinary purposes, they
were sometimes devoid of elegance, and scarcely
superior to those of England, before the classic taste
of Wedgewood substituted the graceful forms ot
Greek models, for the unseemly productions of our
old potteries. Though the clay of Upper Egypt
was particularly suited to porous bottles, it could
not be obtained of a sufficiently fine quality for
the manufacture of vases like those of Greece and
Italy ; in Egypt too, good taste did not extend to
* The Greeks went to study in Egypt, as modern artists in Italy.
t Plin. XXX vi. 12. " When the shadow was equal to its height," at
an angle of 45°.
J On a par with this is their deriving foreign names from their own
language, as Isis from the Greek word signifying "knowledge." —
" EXXjjwikov yap jj l(ng tan" Plut. de Is. s. 2.: and many others.
CHAP. IX. CARPENTERS AND CABINET-MAKERS. lOj
all classes, as in Greece ; and vases used for fetch-
ing water from a well, or from the Nile, were fre-
quently of a very ordinary kind, far inferior to those
carried by the Athenian women to the fountain of
Kallirhoe.*
The Greeks, it is true, were indebted to Egypt
for much useful knowledge, and for many early hints
in art, but they speedily surpassed their instructors
in taste, and improved on the information they had
acquired ; and in nothing, perhaps, is this more
strikingly manifested than in the productions of the
potter.
CARPENTERS AND CABINET-MAKERS,
Carpenters and cabinet-makers were a very
numerous class of workmen : and their occupa-
tions generally form one of the most important sub-
jects in the paintings which represent the Egyptian
trades.
Egypt produced little wood ; and with the ex-
ception of the date and dom palms, the sycomore,
tamarisk, and acacias, few trees of native growth
afforded timber either for building, or for ornamental
purposes.
The principal uses of the date and dom trees I
have already mentioned, t
For coffins, boxes, tables, doors, and other objects,
which required large and thick planks, for idols and
wooden statues, the sycomore was principally em-
* In Mr. Rogers's choice collection is a vase, on which this subject
is represented.
t In Vol.11, p. 177, 178.
M i
l68 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
ployed ; and from the great quantity discovered in
the tombs alone, it is evident that the tree was cul-
tivated to a great extent. It had the additional re-
commendation of bearing a fruit, to which the
Egyptians were very partial ; and a religious preju-
dice claimed for it, and the Persea, the name and
rank of sacred fruit trees.
The tamarisk was preferred for the handles of
tools, wooden hoes, and other things requiring a hard
and compact wood ; and of the acacia were made the
planks and masts of boats, the handles of offensive
weapons of war, and various articles of furniture.
Large groves of this tree were cultivated in many
parts of Egypt ; especially in the vicinity of
Memphis and Abydus, where they still exist ; and
besides its timber, the acacia was highly valued for
the pods it produced, so useful for tanning, and
for the gum, which exudes from the trunk and
branches, now known under the name of gum Ara-
bic. * This tree is not less prized by the modern
Egyptians, who have retained its name as well as its
uses ; sont being applied to this species of acacia,
both in Arabic and the ancient Egyptian language.
Besides the Sont, or Acacia (Mimosa) Nilotica,
the Sellem, SumVy Tulh^ Fitneh^ Lehbekh^ and
other acacias, which grew in Egypt, were also
adapted to various purposes ; and some instances
are met with of the wood of the Eqleeq^ or Balanites
^gyptiaca, and of different desert trees having been
used by the Egyptian carpenters.
* Other acacias produce this gum. The Tulh has, jiar excellence, the
specific title of gummifera. Vide Vol. II. p. 182.
CHAP. IX. IMITATION OF RARE WOODS. lt)9
For ornamental purposes, and sometimes even
for coffins, doors, and boxes, foreign woods were
employed ; deal and cedar were imported from
Syria ; and part of the contributions, exacted from
the conquered tribes of Ethiopia, and Asia, con-
sisted in ebony and other rare woods, which were
annually brouglit by the chiefs, deputed to present
their country's tribute to the Egyptian monarchs.
Boxes, chairs, tables, sofas, and other pieces of
furniture were frequently made of ebony, inlaid
with ivory ; sycomore and acacia were veneered
with thin layers, or ornamented with carved devices,
of rare wood, applied, or let into them ; and a
fondness for this display suggested to the Egypt-
ians the art of painting common boards, to imitate
foreign varieties, so generally adopted at the pre-
sent day.
The colours were usually applied on a thin coat-
ing of stucco, laid smoothly upon the previously
prepared wood, and the various knots and grains,
painted upon this ground, indicated the quality of
the wood they intended to counterfeit.
The usual tools * of the carpenter were the axe,
adze, hand-saw, chisels of various kinds (which were
struck with a wooden mallet), the drill, and two sorts
of planes, (one resembling a chisel t, the other ap-
parently of stone, acting as a rasp on the surface
of the wood, which was afterwards polished by a
smooth body, probably also of stone t ;) and these
* Vide supra, woodcut, No. 151. Vol. II. c. 5. p. 181.
t Vide woodcut, No. 89./g. 3. Vol. 11. p. 42.
t Vide woodcut, No. 89./g. 2. Vol. II. p. 42.
170 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
with the ruler*, plummet, and right angle t, a leather
bag containing nails, the hone, and horn of oil,
constituted the principal, and perhaps the only,
implements he used.
Some of the furniture of their rooms, the work
of the cabinet-maker, I have already noticed t, and
have observed § the perfection to which they had
arrived in the construction of the chairs and otto-
mans of their saloons ; nor can I omit the mention
of the art of dovetailing, already practised in the
earliest Pharaonic ages, or the mode of applying
two planks together in the same plane, by means
of broad pins, or tongues, of hard wood. Of the
former numerous instances occur, both in large and
small objects, and no illustration of it is required ;
the latter is peculiar, and shows the great care
taken to make every thing durable, which charac-
terizes all the works of the Egyptians.
When two boards are joined together by our
modern carpenters, they insert small round pins
horizontally, into corresponding parts of the edges,
and then apply them together, so as to form as it
were a single piece ; but the Egyptian carpenter was
not content with this precaution, and having used flat
pins for this purpose about two inches in breadth, he
secured these again, after the boards had been applied
to each other, by round pins or wooden nails, driven
vertically through the boards, into each of the flat
pins ; and thus the possibility of the joint opening
* r«/e woodcut, No. 364,/
+ Vide woodcut, No. 359. part ii. fg. v. ; and No. SG*. e.
j At the beginning of chapter vi.
J Vol. II. ch. vi. p. 193.
CHAP. IX. CARPENTERS. I7I
was effectually prevented, even should the glue,
which was added as in our modern boxes, fail to
hold them.
After the wood had been reduced to a proper
size by the saw, the adze was the principal tool
employed for fashioning it; and from the pre-
cision with which even the smallest objects are
worked with it at the present day, by the un-
skilful carpenters of modern Egypt, we may
form some idea of its use in the hands of their
expert predecessors; and we are less surprised to
meet with it so fi^equently represented in the
sculptures.
Many of them, together with saws and chisels,
have been found at Thebes : the blades are all ol
bronze, the handles of the acacia or the tamarisk ;
and, which is very singular, the general mode ot
fastening the blade to the handle, appears to have
been by thongs of hide. It is probable that some
of those discovered in the tombs are only models,
or unfinished specimens ; and it may have been
thought sufficient to show their external appear-
ance, without the necessity of nailing them, beneath
the thongs * ; for those which they used were
bound in the same manner, though I believe them
to have been also secured with nails. Some,
however, evidently belonged to the individuals in
whose tombs they were buried, and like the chisels
appear to have been used : for these last often bear
* It is probable that the stone and bronze celts found in Britain
were fastened to their handles in the same manner. Vide wood-cut.
No. 'S6i. c. and No. 359. u. part 2.
172 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
the signs of having been beaten with the hammer
or mallet.
The drill is frequently exhibited in the sculp-
tures. Like all the other tools, it was of the
earliest date, and precisely similar to that of
modern Egypt, even to the nut of the dom * in
which it turned, and the form of its bow with a
leathern thong.
The chisel was employed for the same purposes,
and in the same manner, as at the present day,
and was struck with a wooden mallet, sometimes
flat at the two ends, sometimes of circular or oval
form ; several of which last have been found at
Thebes, and are preserved in our European mu-
seums. The handles of the chisel were of acacia,
tamarisk, or other compact wood; the blades of
bronze ; and the form of the points varied in
breadth, according to the work for which they
were intended.
The hatchet was principally used by boat-
builders, and those who made large pieces of
framework ; and trees were felled with the same
instrument.
The mode of sawing timber was primitive and
imperfect, owing to their not having adopted the
double saw; and they were obliged to cut every
piece of wood, however large, single-handed. In
order, therefore, to divide a beam into planks, they
placed it, if not of very great length, upright be-
tween two posts, firmly fixed in the ground, and
* Vuie woodcut, No. 359, part 2,, and Vol. II. p. 180, 181.
CHAP. IX. EARLY USE OF GLUE. 173
being lashed to them with cords, or secured with
pins, it was held as in a vice.*
Among the many occupations of the carpenter,
that of veneering is noticed in the sculptures of
Thebes, as early as the time of the third Thoth-
mes, whom I suppose to be the Pharaoh of the
Exodus ; and the application of a piece of rare
wood of a red colour, to a yellow plank of syco-
more, or other ordinary kind, is clearly pointed
out. And in order to show that the yellow wood
is of inferior quality, the workman is represented
to have fixed his adze carelessly in a block of the
same colour, while engaged in applying them to-
gether. Near him are some of his tools, with a box
or small chest, made of inlaid and veneered wood,
of various hues ; and in the same part of the shop
are two other men, one of whom is employed in
grinding something with a stone on a slab, and the
other in spreading glue with a brush.
It might, perhaps, be conjectured that varnish
was intended to be here represented ; but the ap-
pearance of the pot on the fire, the piece of glue
with its concave fracture, and the workman before
mentioned, applying the two pieces of wood to-
gether, satisfactorily decide the question, and attest
the invention of gluet 3300 years ago. This is
not, however, the only proof of its use at an early
* Vide woodcut, No. 368. a.
■f Professor Rosellini seems to think that the application of colour
is here represented; but the presence of the pot, containing the brush,
upon the fire, (Wood- cut. No. 364. 8.) will scarcely admit of this,
though the figure (Jig. 2.) grinding something on the slab, might ap-
pear to strengthen his conjecture. He has placed this subject with the
174
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
painters of Beni Hassan, but it is at Thebes. Pliny ascribes the in-
vention of glue to Daedalus, as well as of the saw, the axe, the plumb-
line, and the auger. Plin. vii. 36.
CHAP. IX. BOXES. 17.1
period, and several wooden boxes have been
found, in which glue was employed to fasten the
joints.
Various boxes, shrines, articles of furniture, and
other works of the cabinet-maker are frequently
portrayed in the paintings of Thebes, many of which
present not inelegant forms, and are beautifully
made. I have already noticed* several of the
smaller objects, as boxes for trinkets and ointment,
wooden spoons, and the like ; and have described t
a curious substitute for a hinge, in some of those
discovered at Thebes.
Many boxes had lids resembling the curved
summit of a royal canopy $, and were ornamented
with the usual cornice § ; others had a simple flat
cover ; and some few a pointed summit, resembling
the shelving roof of a house. 1| This last kind of lid
was divided into two parts, one of which alone
opened, turning on two small pins at the base, on
the principle of the doors of their houses and
temples ; and when necessary, the two knobs at
the top^ could be tied together and sealed, in the
same manner as in that previously mentioned. * *
When not veneered, or inlaid with rare wood,
the sides and lid were painted, and those in-
tended for the tombs, to be deposited there in
honour of the deceased, had usually a funereal
inscription, or a religious subject painted upon
* In Vol. II. p. 355. to 362. f In p. 361, 362.
% Woodcut, No. 365. Jigs. 1, 2, 3, 6. ^ Fig. 1.
II Woodcut, No. 363. j%5. 4. 8. H Fig. 4!.
** In Vol. II. p. 362.
lyO
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
No. 365.
Different boxes
Figs. 1. and 2. Mode of placing the lid when the box was opened.
3. Man opening a box, from a painting at Thebes.
*. and 5. A painted box of Mr. Salt's collection, showing how the lid opened.
fi. and 7. Boxes from the paintings of Thebes.
8. Another box with a shelving lid, from a tomb at Thebes, in Mr. Salt's collection.
CHAP. IX. BOXES. 177
them, representing offerings presented by mem-
bers of his family.*
Several boxes have been found at Thebes ; and
the British Museum possesses some formerly be-
longing to M. Salt, one of which is remarkable for
the brilliancy of the colours imparted to the pieces
of ivory with which it is inlaid. The box is of
ebony ; the ivory, painted red and blue, is let into
the sides and edges, and the lid is ornamented in
the same manner. There is in this a substitute for
a hinge, similar to the one before mentioned, except
that here the back of the cross bar, cut to a sharp
edge along its whole extent, fits into a corres-
ponding groove at the end of the box : the two
knobs are fixed in their usual place at the top and
front.
The lids of many boxes were made to slide in
a groove, like our small colour boxes, as that given
in a preceding wood-cut t ; others fitted into the
body, being cut away at the edges for this pur-
pose; and some turned on a pin at the back, as I
have shown in the long-handled boxes before men-
tioned, t
In opening a large box they frequently pushed
back the lid, and then either turned it sideways §
and left it standing across the breadth of the box,
or suffered it to go to the ground ; but in those
of still larger dimensions, it was removed alto-
gether and laid upon the floor.
* Figs. 4, and 8. f Woodcut, No. 2G9. p. 361. Vol. II.
Vule woodcuts, Nos. 258. 239. and 263.
Woodcut, No. 365.//?.?. 1, 2, 3.
VOL. III. N
I
178 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
With the carpenters may be mentioned the
wheelwrights, the makers of coffins, and the
coopers ; and this subdivision of one class of arti-
sans, showing a systematic partition of labour, is
one of many proofs of the advancement of this
civilised people.
I have already shown that the Egyptian cha-
riot was of wood*, and have pointed out what
portion of it was the province of the carpenter and
the currier t ; and having described the war chariot,
and the curricle of the towns, it only remains to
notice the travelling car, or light plaustrum, which
was drawn by oxen.
Though so frequently used in Egypt, it is sin-
gular that one instance alone occurs of this kind of
car, in a tomb I opened at Thebes in 1827 ; ^i^d
this ought to show how wrong it is to infer the
non-existence of a custom from its not being met
with in the sculptures. The same remark also
applies to the camel, which, in consequence of its
not being found either in the paintings or hiero-
glyphics t, is conjectured by some to have been un-
known in Egypt at an early period ; though, as I
have already observed §, it is distinctly mentioned
in the Bible among the presents given to Abraham
by the king of Egypt.
* Vol. I. p. 342. I have observed that the Egyptian chariot had
only two wheels, and one instance is alone met with of a four wheeled
carriage. Pliny says waggons with four wheels were an invention of
the Phrygians, lib. vii. 56.
t Vol. I. p. 348.
X I have noticed an instance of it on a seal I found in Nubia, of
uncertain date.
^ In chap. viii.
CHAP. IX.
THE PLAUSTRUM.
179
The plaustrum was very similar to the war
chariot * and the curricle, but the sides appear to
have been closed, and it was drawn by a pair of
oxen instead of horses. The harness was much
the same, and the wheels had six spokes. In a
journey it was occasionally furnished with a sort of
umbrella, fixed upon a rod rising from the centre,
or back part of the car : the reins were the same as
those used for horses, and apparently furnished with
a bit ; and besides the driver, a groom sometimes
attended on foot, at the head of the animals, per-
haps feeding them as they went.
The accompanying wood-cut represents an
Ethiopian princess, who is on her journey through
1 2 3
No. 366. An Ethiopian princess travelling in a plaustrum, or car drawn by oxen. Over
her is a sort of umbrella. Thebes.
3 an attendant. 4 the charioteer or driver.
* It has been always a matter of surprise how the ancients could
traverse hilly countries, where no roads were made, with so much facility,
in chariots.
N 2
180 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Upper Egypt to Thebes, where the court then
resided ; but whether it was on the occasion of her
projected marriage with the king, the brother of the
thud Amunoph, or merely to present her homage
to him, is uncertain. A large tribute is brought
at the same time from her countrymen, the " Cush,"
or "Ethiopians;" which seems to show that it
merely relates to a visit of ceremony from the
queen or princess of that country j and the fact of
the charioteer and some other of the attendants
being Egyptians, suggests that the plaustrum was
also provided from Egypt, as was the case when
Pharaoh * sent for Jacob, and his family, to bring
them to Egypt. The plaustra are called in Gene-
sis t "waggons:" they were commonly used in
Egypt for travelling; and Strabo performed the
journey from Syene, to the spot, where he crossed
the river to visit Philee, in one of those carriages, t
Besides the plaustrum, they had a sort of palan-
quin §, and a canopy or frame-work, answering the
purpose of a sedan chair, in which they sometimes
sat or stood, in their open pleasure boats, or in situa-
tions where they wished to avoid the sun ; and
these were also the work of the cabinet-maker.
Certain persons were constantly employed in
the towns of Egypt, as at the present day in Cairo
and other places, to pound various substances in
large stone mortars ; and salt, seeds, and other
things were probably taken, in the same manner, by
* Genes, xlv. 19.
f They are termed ageloot m^sr, ivkeekd carriages. Gen. loc. cit.
i Strabo, lib. xvii. p. 562. ed. Cas. " amtvri"
^ Vide supra, Vol. II. p. 228. Woodcut, No. 174.
CHAP. IX. POUNDING IN STONE MORTARS.
181
a servant to these shops, whenever it was incon-
venient to have it done in the house. The pestles
they used, as well as the mortars themselves, were
precisely similar to those of the modern Egyptians;
and, their mode of pounding was the same ; two
men alternately raising ponderous metal pestles
with both hands, and directing their falling point
to the centre of the mortar ; which is now
No. 367. Pounding various substances in stone mortars, with metal pestles. Thebes.
ag i mortars. il d pestles. Figs. 1 and 2 alternately raising and letting fall the pestles into the mortar.
Fig. 3 and 4 silting the substance after it is pounded ; the coarser parts fi, being returned into the
mortar to be again pounded.
generally made of a large piece of granite, or
other hard stone, scooped out into a long narrow
tube, to little more than half its depth. When
the substance was well pounded, it was taken out,
and passed through a sieve, and the larger particles
were again returned to the mortar, until it was
sufficiently and equally levigated ; and this, and
the whole process here represented, so strongly
resemble the occupation of the public pounders
at Cairo, that no one, who has been in the habit
of walking in the streets of that town, can fail to
N 3
182 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
recognise the custom, or doubt of its having been
handed down from the early Egyptians, and retained
without the shghtest alteration, to the present day.
In a country where water and other liquids were
carried, or kept, in skins and earthenware jars, there
was little necessity for the employment of wooden
barrels, which too are little suited to a climate like
the hot and arid Egypt ; and modern experience
there shows how ill adapted barrels are for such
purposes, and how soon they fall to pieces, if neg-
lected or left empty for a very short period. We
cannot, therefore, expect that they should be in
common use among the ancient Egyptians ; and
the skill of the cooper * was only required to
make wooden measures for grain t, which were
bound with hoops either of wood or metal, and
resembled in principle those now used in Egypt
for the same purpose ; though in form they ap-
proached nearer to the small barrels t, or kegs, of
modern Europe.
In an agricultural scene, painted at Beni Has-
san, a small barrel is represented, placed upon a
stand, apparently at the end of the field, which I
at first supposed to have been intended to hold
water for the use of the husbandmen, one of whom
is approaching the spot ; calling to mind the cup
of wine presented to the ploughman on reaching
the end of the furrow, mentioned by Homer, in
* The coopers of Cairo are gerrerally Greeks.
f One of these is represented in woodcut, No. 90. fig. 2.
j In Europe, barrels were said by PHny to have been invented by
the Gauls, who inhabited the banks of the Po. Varro and Columella
mention them in their time. They were pitched within.
CHAP. IX.
COFFIN MAKERS.
183
N 4
184 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
his description of the shield of Achilles * ; but it
is probable that in this instance, also, it is intended
to indicate the measure of grain, with which the
land was to be sown after the plough had passed.
A great number of persons were constantly em-
ployed in making coffins, as well as the numerous
boxes, wooden figures, and other objects con-
nected with funerals, who may be comprehended
under the general head of carpenters ; the under-
takers, properly so called, being a different class of
people, attached to and even forming part of the
sacerdotal order, though of an inferior grade. In-
deed the ceremonies of the dead were so numerous,
and so many persons were engaged in performing
the several duties connected with them, that no
particular class of people can be said to have had
the sole direction in these matters ; and we find
that the highest orders of priests officiated in some,
and in others those of a very subordinate station.
Thus the embalmers were held in the highest con-
sideration, while those who cut open the body, when
the intestines were removed, are said to have been
treated with ignominy and contempt.t
BOAT-BUILDERS AND SHIPS.
The boat-builders may be divided into two sepa-
rate and distinct classes ; one of which formed a
subdivision of the carpenters, the other of the
basket-makers, or the weavers of rushes and
osiers; another very numerous class of workmen.
* Homer, 11. a. 545. f Diod. i. 91.
CHAP. IX. BOATS OF THE PAPYRUS, 185
The boats made by these last were a sort of canoe
or punt, used for fishing, and consisted merely of
water plants or osiers, bound together with bands
made of the stalks of the papyrus or cyperus.* They
were very light, and some so small that they could
easily be carried from one place to another t ; and
the Ethiopian boats, mentioned by Pliny t, which
were taken out of the water, and carried on men's
shoulders past the rapids of the cataracts, were
probably of a similar kind.
Strabo§, on the other hand, describes the boats
at the cataracts of Syene passing the falls in perfect
security, and exciting the surprise of the beholders,
before whom the boatmen delighted in displaying
their skill ; and Celsius affirms that they were made
of the papyrus.
Papyrus boats are frequently noticed by ancient
writers. Plutarch describes Isis going, in search
of the body of Osiris, *' through the fenny coun-
try, in a bark made of the papyrus || ; whence
it is supposed that persons using boats of this
description^ are never attacked by crocodiles, out
of fear and respect to the goddess ; " and Moses is
said to have been exposed in "an ark (or boat) of
bulrushes, daubed with slime and with pitch."**
From this last we derive additional proof that the
* Not the same species as that used for making paper. Vid£ supra,
p. 146.
+ Achilles Tatius, lib. iv.
I Plin.v. 9. § Strabo, xvii. p. 562.
II Plut. de Is. S. 18. " Ev fSapih Trcnrvpivy."
if " Ev TTcnrvpivoiQ fficatpiai TrXeovrag." Plut. loc. cit.
** Exod. ii. 3. The bulrush is called nqj ; the paper reeds in Isaiah,
xix. 7. are nny-
186 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
body of such boats was composed of rushes, which,
as I have observed, were bound together with the
papyrus ; and the mode of rendering them imper-
vious to water is satisfactorily pointed out by the
coating of pitch, with which they were covered.
Nor can there be any doubt that pitch was known
in Egypt at that time, since we find it on objects
which have been preserved of the same early date ;
and the Hebrew word flQ^ (zift) is precisely the
same as that used for pitch by the Arabs, to the
present day.
Pliny mentions boats " woven of the papyrus *,"
the rind being made into sails, curtains, matting,
ropes, and even into cloth ; and observes else-
where that the papyrus, the rush, and the reed
were all used for making boats in Egypt. t
*' Vessels of bulrushes" are again mentioned in
Isaiah t : Lucan alludes to the mode of binding
or sewing them with bands of papyrus §; and Theo-
phrastusll notices boats made of the papyrus, and
sails and ropes of the rind of the same plant.
That small boats were made of these materials
is very probable ; and the sculptures of Thebes,
Memphis, and other places abundantly show that
they were employed as punts or canoes for fishing,
in all parts of Egypt, during the inundation of the
Nile ; particularly in the lakes and canals of the
Delta.
Plin. xiii. 11. "Ex ipso quidem papyro navigia texunt."
Plin. vii. 16. and vi. 22. J Isaiah, xviii. 2.
" Conseritur bibula Memphitis cymba papyro."
Lucan, iv. 136.
II Theophr. iv. 9.
t
CHAP. IX. LARGE BOATS OF BURDEN. 187
There was another kind, called by Strabo ^ec^o/i,
in one of which he crossed the Nile to the Island
of Philse, " made of thongs, so as to resemble
wicker-work * ; " but it does not appear from his
account whether it was formed of reeds bound to-
gether with thongs, or was like those made in Ar-
menia, and used for going down the river to Ba-
bylon, which Herodotus describes, of osiers covered
with hides, t
The Armenian boats were merely employed for
transporting goods down the current of the Eu-
phrates, and on reaching Babylon were broken
up ; the hides being put upon the asses which
had been brought on board for this purpose, and
the traders returning home by land. *' They
were round, in form of a shield, without either head
or stern ; the hollow part of the centre being filled
with straw." " Some were large, others small, and
the largest were capable of bearing 5000 talents
weight." They were therefore very different from
the boats, reported by the same historian to have
been made in Egypt for transporting goods up the
Nile, which he describes as being built in the form
of ordinary boats, with a keel, and a mast and
sails.
" The Egyptian boats of burden," he says, "are
made of a thorn wood, very similar to the lotus of
Cyrene, from which a tear exudes, called gum. Of
this tree they cut planks measuring about two cubits,
* Strabo, xvii. p. 562.
f Herodot. i. 194. Those of the ancient Britons were made of
wickerwork covered with hides. Caes. B.C. i. 54.
188 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
and having arranged them Uke bricks, they build
the boat in the following manner: — They fasten the
planks round firm long pegs, and, after this, stretch
over the surface a series of girths, but without any
ribs, and the whole is bound within by bands of
papyrus. A single rudder is then put through
the keel, and a mast of thorn-wood, and sails of
the papyrus (rind) complete the rigging. These
boats can only ascend the stream with a strong
wind, unless they are towed by ropes from the
shore ; and when coming down the river, they are
provided with a hurdle made of tamarisk*, sewed
together with reeds, and a stone, about two talents
weight, with a hole in the centre. The hurdle is
fastened to the head of the boat, and allowed to
float on the water ; the stone is attached to the
stern; so that the former, carried down the river by
the rapidity of the stream, draws after it the haris
(for such is the name of these vessels), and the
latter, dragged behind, and sinking into the water,
serves to direct its course. They have many of
these boats ; some of which carry several thousand
talents weight." t
That boats of the peculiar construction he here
describes were really used in Egypt, is very pro-
bable; they may have been employed to carry
goods from one town to another, and navigated in
the manner he mentions : but we may be allowed
to doubt their carrying several thousand talents, or
many tons, weight; and we have the evidence of the
* Vide Plin. xiii. 21. " Myricen, qiiam alii taniaricen vocant."
t Herod, ii. 96.
CHAP. IX. SAILS. — SHIPS OF WAR. 189
paintings of Upper and Lower Egypt to show that
the large boats of burthen were made of wooden
planks, which men are seen cutting with saws and
hatchets, and afterwards fastening together with
nails and pins ; and they were furnished with spa-
cious cabins, like those of modern Egypt.
Pliny even goes farther than Herodotus, and
speaks of papyrus vessels crossing the sea, and
visiting the Isle of Taprobane * (Ceylon) ; unless,
indeed, he alludes to their sails, made of the rind of
that plant.
We are not, however, reduced to the necessity of
crediting these statements of Pliny and Herodotus ;
and though punts and canoes of osiers, and papyrus,
or reeds, may have been used on some occasions, as
they still are t, on the Nile and the lakes of Egypt,
we may be certain that the Egyptians had strong
and well built vessels for the purposes of trade by
sea, and for carrying merchandise, corn, and other
heavy commodities on the Nile ; and that, even
if they had been very bold and skilful navigators,
they would not have ventured to India t, nor have
defeated the fleets of Phoenicia §, in their paper
vessels.
The sails, when made of the rind of the papy-
rus, have been supposed similar to those of the
* Plin, vi. 22. " Quia papyraceis navibus armamentisque Nili pete-
retur (Taprobane)."
j- They are very rude, and much smaller than those of ancient times.
J Among the numerous productions of India met with in Egypt,
which tend to prove an intercourse with that country, may be men-
tioned the pine apple, models of which are found in the tombs, of glazed
pottery. One is in the possession of Sir Richard Westmacott.
$ In the reign of Apries. Vide Vol. I. p. 169.
190 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Chinese, which fold up like our Venetian blinds ;
but there is only one boat represented in the
paintings, which appears to have sails of this kind,
though so many are introduced there ; nor can
we believe that a people, noted for their manufac-
tures of linen and other cloths, would have pre-
ferred so imperfect a substitute as the rind of a
plant, especially as they exported sail cloth to
Phoenicia for that very purpose. *
Diodorus t and Herodotus t both mention the
fleet of long vessels, or ships of war, fitted out by
Sesostris in the Arabian Gulf. The former states
that they were four hundred in number, and that
Sesostris was the_^r*^ Egyptian monarch, who built
similar vessels ; but Herodotus merely says he was
the first who passed into the ocean ; and the neces-
sity of previously having ships of war to protect the
trade and coasts of Egypt, disproves his statement,
and suggests that they were used at the early period,
when the port of Philoteras traded with the Arabian,
and, perhaps, even the Indian shore. §
Pliny supposes that ships were first built by
Danaus ||, and taken from Egypt to Greece when
he migrated to that country ; rafts only having been
previously known ; and he states that some attri-
buted their invention to the Trojans and Mysians,
who crossed the Hellespont, in their wars with
Thrace. The sculptures, however, of ancient Egypt
* Vide Ezekiel, xxvii. 7. In the lamentation of Tyre, " Fine linen,
with broidered work from Egypt, was that which thou spreadest forth
to be thy sail."
t Diodor. i. 55. % Herodot. ii. 102.
§ ride Vol. I. p. 46. || Plin. vii. 56.
GHAP. IX. CHAMPOLLION. 191
still remain to decide the question, and their dates
being now ascertained, we are enabled to form our
own opinions on the subject, without the necessity
of trusting to the uncertain accounts of ancient
writers. From the sculptures of the eighteenth
dynasty, it appears that the same kind of boats for
carrying heavy burdens were then employed in
Egypt, as in the later days of Psamaticus and
Amasis; they are found at Eilethyas and Beni
Hassan of the age of Amosis*, and of Osirtasen
the contemporary of Joseph ; and in the tombs near
the pyramids they again occur, of an epoch previous
to the sixteenth dynasty, and the reign of Osir-
tasen.
The ingenious Champollion conjectured that
some hieroglyphics at Eilethyas proved t the in-
mate of one of the tombs there, called — " Ah-
mosis, the son of Obschne," to have been ** chief
of the mariners, or rather of the pilots," who
" entered the naval career in the time of King
Ahmosis," and *' accompanied that monarch, when
he went up by water to Ethiopia, to impose
tribute upon it,** and "commanded ships under
Thoutmosis the First." If this be true, it confirms
what I have before stated, respecting the early
existence of an Egyptian fleet; and whatever im-
provement may have been afterwards made in the
ships of war, fitted out by Sesostris and other
monarchs, in the Arabian Gulf and Mediterra-
* These two names are both written Ames in the hieroglyphics, but
I use them thus by way of distinction, and in accordance with Manetho.
Vide Vol. I. p. 47. and 150.
f Champollion's twelfth letter from Egypt. Vide Lit. Gazette, p. 617.
192 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
nean*, we have sufficient evidence from the paint-
ings of the tombs at Eilethyas, that in the time
of the same Amosis, the ordinary travelling boats
of the Nile were of a construction far superior to
those mentioned by Herodotus.
To have had frequent occasion to introduce the
name of Champollion, to whom we are so deeply
indebted, without paying a just tribute to his
talents, is to me a reproach, which I cannot
suffer to remain unremoved. I do not wish to
enter into the question respecting the discovery
of the proper mode of reading the hieroglyphics :
suffice it to say that Dr. Young gave the first
idea and proof of their alphabetic force, which
was even for some time after doubted by Cham-
pollion. And that the merit of originality in this
point is due to our distinguished countryman I
can bear a satisfactory testimony, having, with
my much regretted friend Sir William Gell, as
early as the summer of 1821, so far profited by
Dr. Young's opinions on the subject, as to be ena-
bled to suggest the supposed value of two or three
other characters, besides those he had already ascer-
tained ; our taking this view of the question being
solely in consequence of his discovery that they were
the representatives of letters. But it remained for
the genius of Champollion to kindle the spark thus
obtained into a flame, and to display by its light,
the path which led to a clear insight into the
subject, to perfect the discovery, and to lay down
* Herodot. ii. 139. and 102. Diodor. i. 68.
CHAP. IX. CHAMPOLLION. 193
certain rules, applicable in individual as well as in
general cases ; and in justice to him be it confessed,
that if our knowledge of hieroglyphics were con-
fined to the limited extent to which it was car-
ried by Dr. Young, we should have no regular
system to guide us, in the interpretation of them,
and should know little more than the alphabetic
value of a few letters, without the means of affixing
a positive construction to a single sentence on any
Egyptian monument.
Had Champollion been disposed to give more
credit to the value and originality of Dr. Young's
researches, and to admit that the real discovery of
the key to the hieroglyphics, which in his dexterous
hand proved so useful in unlocking those treasures,
was the result of his labours, he would unques-
tionably have increased his own reputation, without
making any sacrifice. In this, as in the case of
Mr. Burton's trilinguar (or rather trigrammatic)
stone, and in a few other points, he may have
shown a want of ingenuousness : all have their
faults and vanities; but this is not a reason that
the memory of one so respectable as Champollion
should be aspersed, or due praise refused liim ; and
we cannot forgive the ungenerous conduct of those
who, from private pique, summon up and misapply
talents, to pervert truth; denying the merit of
labours which, every one acquainted with the sub-
ject, knows to have been crowned with unexampled
and wonderful success. This is not an era, when
we could believe men capable of lending tlicm-
selves to the unworthy office of maligning one no
VOL. III. o
194 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
longer living to defend himself, and one, who pre-
sent, or absent, merits and possesses the respect
and admiration of every unprejudiced person. Yet
have some been found, in more than one country,
prompted to this malicious act by personal enmity,
envy of his superior talents and success, or by that
affectation of scepticism, which, while it endeavours
to conceal ignorance, often hopes to acquire credit
for discernment and superior knowledge.
When the subject of hieroglyphics becomes bet-
ter understood, and the world is capable of judging
how much we owe to him, the wonderful ingenuity
of ChampoUion will be appreciated, and the great-
est praise we can bestow on him is confidently to
pronounce, that time will do justice to his merits,
and experience prove the truth of what inexpe-
rience now calls in question.
In the mean time, his last labours, when in Egypt,
are not lost to us ; and though we deeply regret that
his life was not spared to complete the task he so
ably commenced, it is satisfactory to find his power-
ful aid still benefits and guides us, by the publication
of his grammar of hieroglyphics ; and some of the
valuable materials collected by him and Professor
Rosellini are already before us. It is indeed for-
tunate, that one, so talented and so persevering as
the Italian Professor, should have presided over
that part of the scientific expedition sent to Egypt
by the Tuscan government; and those who follow
in the field of hieroglyphic enquiry will re-echo
the praises we so willingly bestow on the liberality
of governments, whose patronage is given to such
a worthy object.
CHAP. IX. MODERN BOATS OF THE NILE.
195
The construction of the various boats used on
the Nile varied, according to the purposes for
which they were intended. The punts or canoes
were either pushed with a pole, or propelled with
a paddle * ; they had no mast, nor even rudder ; and
many of the small boats, intended merely for row-
ing, were unprovided with a mast or sails. They
were also destitute of the raised cabin, common in
large sailing boats, and the rowers appear to have
been seated on the flat deck, which covered the
interior from the head to the stern, pushing instead
of pulling the oars, contrary to the usual custom
in boats of larger dimensions. The absence of a
mast did not altogether depend on the size of the
boat, since those belonging to fishermen, which
were very small, were often furnished with a sail,
besides three or four oars t ; and some large
boats, intended for carrying cattle and heavy goods,
were sometimes without a mast.
No. 369.
Boats for carrying cattle and goods on the Nile.
riicbes.
a b two boats, fastened to the hank hy the ropes and pegs //; in the cabin of one, a man
inflicts the bastinado on a boatman. He is one of the stewards of the estate, and is
accompanied by his dog. In the other boat is a cow, and a net of hay or chopjied straw r,
precisely the same ns the slurtfnow used in Egypt.
* Vide Contest of boatmen, woodcut, No. 313. /?i,'. 1.
-}■ Vide Fishing scene, woodcut, No. 333. part 1. a.
O 2
196
THE ANCIKNT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX'
In going up the Nile, they used the sail, when-
ever the wind was favourable, occasionally rowing,
in those parts where the sinuosities of the river
brought it too much upon the bows ; for it is pro-
bable that, like the modern Egyptians, they did not
tack in navigating the river; and when the wind
was contrary, or during a calm, they generally
employed the tow-line, which was pulled by men
on shore.
After they had reached the southernmost point
of their journey up the stream, the sail was no
long-er considered necessarv ; and the mast and
yards being taken down, were laid over the top
of the cabin, or on a short temporary mast, with
a forked summit ; precisely in the same way, and
with the same view, as at the present day, on
board the cangias, and other masted rowing boats
of Egypt. For as the wind generally blows from
the N. W., it seldom happens that the sail can be
used in going down the Nile, and in a strong wind
the mast and rigging are so great an incumbrance,
that the boat is unable to make any way against
it, with oars.
No. 37(1. — A boat with the masl and sail taken ilown, liavmg a chariot and lioroL-s on hoard.
EUethyas.
The heavy boats of burden, which from their
CHAP. IX. MODERN BOATS OF THE NILE. 197
great size cannot be propelled by oars, are suffered
to retain their masts and sails, and float down the
river sideways at the rate of the stream, advantage
being taken of the wind whenever the bends of the
river allow of it ; and the large germs, used for
carrying corn during the inundation, are only em-
ployed when the water is very deep, and are laid up
the rest of the year, and covered with matting from
the sun. These, therefore, form exceptions to the
ordinary boats of the Nile, and may be considered
similar to some represented in the sculptures of
Alabastron, which are fastened to the shore by
several large ropes, and are shown from the size of
their cabins, the large awning in front for covering
the goods they carried, and the absence of oars, to
have been of unusual dimensions.
In a boat given in the preceding woodcut from,
a tomb at Eilethyas, an error has frequently been
made respecting the wheel upon the top of the
cabin, which some have supposed to be connected
with the sail*, in order to enable the yard to traverse
with greater facility, or for some such purpose ; but
on a careful examination of the subject it proves to
be part of a chariot, too much defaced by time to be
easily perceived at first sight, and the horses belong-
ing to it are seen below in front of the cabin. This
circumstance not only shows the comforts with
which the Egyptian grandees travelled, when going
from one part of the country to the other, but af-
fords additional proof of the size of the boats used
upon the Nile.
* The other boat represented in this snbject has the sail up, and
the same chariot on board. It is, indeed, tlie same boat, with and with-
out the saih
o 3
198 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Large boats had generally one, small pleasure
boats two rudders, at the stern. The former tra-
versed upon a beam, between two projecting heads,
a short pillar or mast supporting it and acting
as the centre on which it moved ; the latter were
nearly the same in principle except that they
turned on a bar, or in a ring, by which they
were suspended to the gunnel at either side ; and
in both instances the steersman directed them, by
means of a rope fastened to the upper extremity.
The rudders consisted of a long broad blade and still
longer handle, evidently made in imitation of the
oars, by which they originally steered their boats,
before they had so far improved them as to adopt a
fixed rudder ; and in order to facilitate its motion
upon the mast or pillar, and to avoid the friction of
the wood, a piece of bull's hide was introduced, as is
the custom in the modern boats, between the mast
and yard.
The oars were a long round wooden shaft, to
which a flat board, of oval or circular form, was fast-
ened, and it is remarkable that the same oar is used
to this day on the Ganges, and in the Arabian Gulf.
They turned either on toll-pins, or in rings, fastened
to the gunnel of the boat, and the rowers sat on the
deck, on benches, or on low seats, or stood or knelt
to the oar, sometimes pushing it forwards, some-
times, and indeed more generally, pulling it, as is
the modern custom in Egypt, and most other
countries.
At the head of the boat a man * usually stood,
* The " Gustos et tutela prorae." Ovitl, Met. iii. 617.
CHAP. IX. CONSTRUCTION OF THE BOATS. 199
with a long pole * in his hand, by which he tried at
intervals the depth of the water, lest they should
run upon any of the numerous sandbanks with
which the river abounds, and which, from their
often changing at the time of the inundation, could
not always be known to the most skilful pilot ; a
precaution still adopted by the modern boatmen of
the Nile.
That the ancient Egyptian boats were built with
ribs, like those of the present day, is sufficiently
proved by the rude models discovered in the tombs
of Thebes. It is probable that they had very little
keel, in order to enable them to avoid the sand-
banks, and to facilitate their removal from them
when they struck ; and indeed if we may judge
from the models, they appear to have been flat-
bottomed. The boats now used on the Nile have
a very small keel, particularly at the centre, where
it is concave ; so that when the head strikes, they
put to the helm, and the hollow part clears the
bank ; except in those cases where the impetus is
too great, or the first warning is neglected.
The sails of the ancient boats appear to have been
always square, with a yard above and below ; in
which they differ from those now adopted in Egypt.
The only modern boats with square sails are a
sort of lighter, employed for conveying stones
from the quarries to Cairo and other places ; and
these have only a yard at the top. All other boats
have latine or triangular-shaped sails, which, in
* The middrec of the Arabs, the contus, or pertica, of the Romans.
o 4
200 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
order to catch the wind when the Nile is low, are
made of immense size : for unless they reach above
its lofty banks they are often prevented from bene-
fiting by a side wind at that season of the year ; but
the number of accidents which occur are a great
objection to the use of such disproportionate sails.
The cabins of the Egyptian boats were lofty and
spacious ; they did not, however, always extend
over the whole breadth of the boat, as in the
modern cangias, but merely occupied the centre ;
the rowers sitting on either side, generally on a
bench or stool. They were made of wood, with a
door in front, or sometimes on one side, and they
were painted within and without with numerous
devices, in brilliant and lively colours.* The same
custom continued to the latest times, long after the
conquest of the country by the Romans ; and
when the Arabs invaded Egypt in 638, under
Amer the general of the Caliph Omer, one of the
objects which struck them with surprise was the
gay appearance of the painted boats of the Nile.
The lotus was one of their favourite devices, as
on their furniture, the ceilings of rooms, and other
places, and it was very common on the blade of the
rudder, where it was frequently repeated at both
ends, together with the eye. But the place con-
sidered peculiarly suited to the latter emblem was
the head or bow of the boat ; and the custom is still
retiiined in some countries to the present day. In
India it is very generally adopted ; and we even
* ndc plate Ifi. — Conf. Plin. 357.
CHAP. IX. BOATS PAINTED. 201
see the small barks which ply in the harbour of
Malta bearing the eye on their bows, in the same
manner as the boats of ancient Egypt.
• They do not appear to have had any thing like the
aplustre of the Romans, an ornament fixed to the
stern, and sometimes to the prow, on which a staff'
was erected, bearing a ribbon or flag ; but streamers
were occasionally attached to the pole of the rudder,
and a standard was erected near the head of the
vessel.* The latter was generally a sacred animal t ;
a sphinx, or some emblem connected with religion
or royalty, like those belonging to the infantry be-
fore described t ; and sometimes the top of the mast
bore a shrine or feathers, the symbol of the deity
to whose protection they committed themselves
during their voyage.
There is a striking resemblance, in some points,
between the boats of the ancient Egyptians and
those of India ; and the form of the stern, the
principle and construction of the rudder, the
cabins, the square sail, the copper eye on each
side of the head, the line of small squares at the
side, like false windows §, and the shape of the
oars of boats used on the Ganges, forcibly call to
mind those of the Nile, represented in the paintings
o/ the Theban tombs.
The head and stern of the Egyptian pleasure-
boats were usually ornamented with, or terminated
in the shape of, a flower richly painted ; in the
* Vide plate 16. boats with coloured sails.
f Perhaps answering to the izupcwrjixov of the Greeks, though not at
the prow itself.
X Vol. I. p. 294. § Vide woodcut, No. 373.
202 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
boats of burden they were destitute of ornament,
and sim})ly rounded off; and I have met with two
only in which there was any resemblance to a beak.
But as this was in Nile boats, and at the stern*,
it could not have been intended for an offensive
purpose. Nor are the ships of war, represented at
Medeenet Haboo, furnished with beaks.
At the head, a forecastle frequently projected
above the deck, which was assigned to the man
who held the fathoming pole, above mentioned,
and at the stern another of similar form was some-
times added, where the steersman sat ; reminding
us of the poop of Roman vessels, t They were
very generally adopted, and found of great service
in the war galliest ; the archers profiting by these
commanding positions to rake the enemy's decks,
as they bore down upon a hostile galley, and to dis-
able the rowers. In the pleasure-boats they served
also as hatches for going below deck, and were si-
milar to what the Nile boatmen now call the hon.
The gallies or ships of war differed in their con-
struction from the boats of the Nile. They were
less raised at the head and stern, and on each side,
throughout the whole length of the vessel, a wooden
bulwark, rising considerably above the gunnel,
sheltered the rowers, who sat behind it, from the
missiles of the enemy ; the handles of the oars
* The remainder of the boat is destroyed, I cannot tlierefore say if
the head vvas of the same form.
f " Ipse gubernator puppi Palinurus ab alta." Virg. JEn. v. 12.
and 175.
J In the Roman gallies the fighting men were placed in a similar
manner at the head and stern, Liv. xxx. 43. and xxxvi. 42., in towers,
called propugnacula. Hor. Epod. i. 2.
CHAP. IX.
SHIPS OF WAR.
203
passing through an aperture at the lower part.
Besides the archers in the raised poop and fore-
castle, a body of slingers was stationed in the tops,
where they could with more facility manage that
weapon, and employ it with effect on the enemy.
On advancing to engage a hostile fleet, the sail
was used till they came within a certain distance,
when the signal or order being given to clear for
action, it was reefed by means of ropes running
in pulHes, or loops, upon the yard. The ends of
these ropes, which were usually four in number,
dividing the sail as it rose into five folds, descended
and were attached to the lower part of the mast, so
as to be readily worked, when the sail required to
be pulled up, at a moment's notice, either in a
squall of wind or on any other occasion ; and in this
respect, and in the absence of a lower yard, the sail
No. 371.
War galley ; the sail being pulled up during the action.
Thebes.
a raised forecastle, in which the archers were posted. c another post for the archers,
and the pilot d. e a bulwark, to protect the rowers. / slingers, in the top.
of the war galley greatly differed from that of the
204 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
boats on the Nile. Having prepared for the attack,
the rowers, whose strength had been hitherto reserv-
ed, pHed their oars ; the head was directed towards
an enemy's vessel, and showers of missiles were
thrown from the forecastle and tops as they ad-
vanced. It was of great importance to strike their
opponent on the side ; and when the steersman,
by a skilful manoeuvre, could succeed in this, the
shock was so great that they sank it, or obtained a
considerable advantage by crippling the oars ; and
greater facility was given for boarding in this part,
being distant from the fighting men, and occupied
only by the rowers.
The small* Egyptian gallies do not appear, as al-
ready observed, to have been furnished with a beak,
like those of the Romans, which being of brass
sharply pointed, and sometimes below the water's sur-
face, did great damage to an enemy's vessel, and ex-
posed it to the danger of sinking, by forcing in the
planks of the bottom ; but a lion's head fixed to the
prow, supplied its place, and being probably covered
with metal, was capable of doing great execution,
when the galley was impelled by the force of 16
or 20 oars, t This head occasionally varied in form,
and perhaps served to indicate the rank of the
commander, the name of the vessel, or the deity
under whose protection they sailed, like the sign
(Trajcao-Tj^ov,) of the Greeks, Romans, and other
peoplet; unless indeed the lion was always chosen
* We have no representation of their large ships of war.
-f- They are represented with eight and ten oars on each side.
j Herodot. viii. 88. Act. Apost. xxviii. 11. Virgil (^n. v. 116.),
shows that ships had names given them, hke our own at the present
day, as the Chimaera, the Centaur, and otiiers.
CHAP. IX.
UNUSUAL KIND OF BOAT.
205
for their war gallies, and the ram, oryx, and
others, confined to the boats connected with the
service of religion.
Some of the boats on the Nile were furnished
with 44 oars, 22 being represented on one side;
which, allowing for the steerage and prow, would
require their total length to be about 120 feet.
They were furnished, like all the others, with one
large square sail ; but the mast, instead of being
single, was made of two limbs of equal length,
sufficiently open at the top to admit the yard be-
tween them, and secured by several strong stays,
one of which extended to the prow, and others to
the steerage of the boat. Over the top of the mast
a light rope was passed, probably intended for furl-
ing the sail, which last, from the horizontal lines
represented upon it, appears to have been like
No. 372. — Largo boat with sail, apparently made of the papyrus, a doulile mast, and many
rowers. In a torn// at Knm Ahmar, above Minich.
206 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
those of the Chinese ; and this, as already observed,
is the only instance of a sail which has the appear-
ance of being made of the papyrus.
At the extremity of the yard were braces, which
being held by a man seated in the steerage, or
upon the cabin, served to turn the sail to the right
and left; they were common to all boats, as with the
Romans, by whom they were called pedes *i and
managed in the same manner. The mode of steer-
ing the boat is also different from that usually de-
scribed in the Egyptian paintings ; and instead of
a rudder in the centre of the stern, or at either
side, it is furnished with three on the same side:
all which peculiarities suffice to show that it was
of unusual construction, perhaps of a very early
period, and afterwards abandoned as cumbrous
and imperfect. The only satisfactory point it
indicates is the mode of arranging the oars, while
not required during a favourable wind. It is
evident that they were drawn up, through the
ring or band in which they turned, and they were
probably held in that position by a thong or loop
passing over the handle t, which the artist has failed
to insert, or which is no longer seen, in consequence
of the imperfect preservation of the painting.
There is no instance of a boat with a rudder at
both ends, said to have been used by some ancient
nations t, nor do we find them provided with more
than one mast, and a single sail; in which respect
they resembled those of the Greeks, at the period
* Whence " facere pcdem," to adjust the sail.
Vklc also woodcut. No. .343. fishing scene.
Tacit, de Mor. Germ. 44. and Ann. ii. G.
t
CHAP. IX. RUDDERS. 207
of the Trojan war.* Sometimes the single rudder,
instead of traversing in a groove, or hollow space,
merely rested on the exterior of the curved stern,
and was suspended by a rope, or bands ; but that
imperfect method was confined to boats used in
religious ceremonies on the river, an instance of
which may be seen in the model preserved at
Berlin, as well as in the paintings of Thebes.
This model, which is very curious, shows the posi-
tion of the rowers, the arrangement of the mast and
yard when taken down, the place of the pegs and
mallet for fastening the boat to the shore, and of the
landing plank ; which were always kept in readiness,
as at the present day, in the bows, and were under
the surveillance of the man stationed at the prow
to report and fathom the depth of the water ; it
also shows that the boat was decked, and that the
cabin did not extend over the whole breadth ;
which is in perfect accordance with the sculptures,
representing the pleasure boats of the Nile, and
those of their funeral ceremonies.
In some boats of burden, the cabin, or raised maga-
zine, was broader, reaching probably from one side
to the other, and sufficiently large to contain cattle,
horses, and numerous stores. t
Unlike the modern Egyptians, they paid great at-
tention to the cleanliness of their boats, the cabins
and decks being frequently washed and swept, and
we find the Theban artists thought it of sufficient
importance to be indicated in the sculptures.
* Homer, Oil. v. 254'. " Vlv ^\arov noiu^Kai nriKfaov apjiivov avrtfi."
\ Vide wood-cut, No. .369.
208
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
No. 373. — Boat of the Nile; showing how the sail was fastened to the yards, and the
nature of the rigging. Thebes.
Herodotus states that the mast was made of the
acanthus (Acacia, or Mimosa Nilotica) ; but as the
trunk and limbs of this tree are not sufficiently
long or straight, it is evident that the historian was
misinformed ; and we may readily conceive that
they preferred the fir, with which they were well
acquainted*, great quantity of the wood being
annually imported into Egypt from Syria. The
planks, the ribs, and the keel were of the acacia,
which from its resisting the effect of water for a
length of time, was found, says Plhiy t, well adapted
for this purpose, as is fully proved by modern
experience. The foot of the mast was let into a
strong beam, which crossed the whole breadth of
the boat; it was supported by and lashed to a
knee, rising to a considerable height before it ;
* Vide Plin. xvi. 40.
\ Plin. xiii. 9. " Spina nigra . . . qiioniain incornipta ctiam in
aquis durat, ob id utilissima navium co.stis." In lib. xvi. 40. he mentions
cedar being used in Syria and Egypt for building ships, when fir wood
was scarce.
CHAP. IX. WOOD USED FOR BOAT-BUILDING. 209
and the many stout stays, fastened at the head,
stern, and sides, sufficiently secured it, and com-
pensated for the great pressure of the heavy yards
and sail it carried.
I have observed that in ships of war, the yard
was allowed to remain aloft after the sail had been
reefed ; but in the boats of the Nile, which had a
yard at the top and bottom of the sail, as soon as
it was furled, they lowered the upper yard, and in
this position it remained until they again prepared
for their departure. To loosen the sail from the
lower yard must have been a tedious operation, if
it was bound to it with the many lacings repre-
sented in some of the paintings ; but in these
cases it may have been folded up between the two
yards, as soon as the upper one was lowered ; the
whole being lashed together by an outer rope.
It is uncertain whether they used pulnes for
raising and lowering the yards, or if the halliards
merely passed through a smooth dead-sheave-hole
at the top of the mast. The yards were evidently
of very great size, and of two separate pieces,
scarfed or joined together at the middle*, sometimes
supported by five or six lifts, and so firmly secured
that men could stand or sit upon them, while en-
gaged in arranging the sail ; and from the upper
yard were suspended several ropes, resembling
the horses of our square-rigged ships t, and per-
haps intended for the same purpose when they
furled the sail. The Egyptians, however, were
* Fide wood-cut, No. 37.3.//. f Vide wood-cut, 'No. 373. gg.
VOL. III. P
210 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
not ignorant of the pulley ; and I am inclined to
believe they introduced it in the rigging of their
boats : though owing to their imperfect style of
drawing, it is not indicated ; and one has actually
been found in Egypt, and is now in the museum
of Leyden. It is, however, of uncertain date, and
was apparently intended for drawing water from a
well. The sides are of athul or tamarisk wood*,
the roller of fir ; and the rope, of leef or fibres of
the date tree, which belonged to it, was found at
the same time.
Many of the sails were painted with rich
colours t, or embroidered with fanciful devices,
representing the phoenix, flowers, and various
emblems ; some were adorned with cheques, and
others were striped, like those of the present day.
This kind of cloth, of embroidered linen, appears
to have been made in Egypt expressly for sails, and
was bought by the Tyrians X for that purpose ;
but its use was confined to the pleasure boats of the
grandees, or of the king himself, ordinary sails
being white; and the ship, says Pliny §, in which
Antony and Cleopatra went to the battle of
Actium, was distinguished from the rest of the
fleet by its purple sails, which were the peculiar
privilege of the admiral's vessel. The same writer
states that the custom of dyeing the sails of ships
was first adopted in the fleet of Alexander the
* Tamarix orientalis,
f The sails of our own vessels in the time of Edward the Fourth,
had coats of arms emblazoned upon them.
X Ezek. xxra. 7. Vide supra, p. 183., note 3.
§ Plin. xix. K
CHAP. IX. PAINTED SAILS. 211
Great, when navigating the Indus ; but that it was
practised long before, in Egypt, is evident from
the paintings at Thebes, which represent sails
richly ornamented with various colours, in the
time of the third Remeses, nine hundred years
previous to the age of Alexander.
The devices with which they were painted or
embroidered depended on fancy, and the same
monarch had ships with sails of different patterns.
Of all these the phoenix appears to have been the
most appropriate emblem, if, as is stated by Hora-
pollo*, it indicated "the return of a traveller, who
had long been absent from his country ; " and it is
probable that the boats used in sacred festivals
upon the Nile were decorated with appropriate
symbols, according to the nature of the ceremony,
or the deity in whose service they were engaged.
The edges of the sail were furnished with a strong
hem or border, also neatly coloured, serving to
strengthen it, and prevent an injury, and a light
rope was generally sewed round it for the same
purpose.
Some of the Egyptian vessels appear to have
been of very great size.t Diodorust mentions one
of cedar wood, dedicated by Sesostris to the god
of Thebes, 280 cubits, or 420 feet, long; an-
other built by Caligula in Egypt, to transport one
of the obelisks to Rome, carried 120,000 modii
(pecks) of lentils as ballast § ; and Ptolemy Philo-
* Horapoll. Hierogl. lib. i. c. 35.
f Coni'. Hor. 1 Epod. i. 1. referring to the large ships of M. Antony,
" alta navium .... propiignacula."
X Diodor. i. 37. (J Plin. xvi. 40. ; and xxxvi. 9.
p 2
212 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
pator built one of forty benches of oars, which was
420 feet long, and 72 from the keel to the top of
the poop, and carried four hundred sailors, besides
four thousand rowers, and near three thousand
soldiers.*
NAVIGATION.
Of the origin of navigation no satisfactory con-
jecture can be offered, nor do we know to what
nation to ascribe the merit of having conferred
so important a benefit on mankind.
It is evident that the first steps were slow and
gradual, and that the earliest attempts to construct
vessels on the sea were rude and imperfect.
Ships of burden were originally mere rafts, made
of the triniks of trees bound together, over which
planks were fastened ; which Pliny states to have
been first used on the Red Seat ; but he is wrong
in limiting the era of ship-building to the age of
Danaus, and in supposing that rafts alone were
employed until that period. Rafts were adopted,
even to carry goods, long after the invention of
ships, as they still are for some purposes on
rivers and other inland waters ; but boats, made of
hollow trees and various materials, covered with
hides or pitch, were also of very early date, and
to these may be ascribed the origin of planked
vessels. Improvement followed improvement, and
* Plut. Life of Demetrius. Pliny (vii. 56.) says it had fifty benches ;
and he mentions another of Ptolemy Philadelphus with forty.
f Plin. vii. 57. The Phoenicians were supposed to have come from
the Red Sea, and to have settled on the coast of the Mediterranean.
Ilerodot. i. 1. Vide Strabo, lib. i. p. 29.
CHAP. IX. NAVIGATION. ^13
in proportion as civilisation advanced, the inventive
genius of man was called forth to push on an inven-
tion, so essential to those communities, where the
advantages of commerce were understood, and
numerous causes contributed to the origin of navi-
gation, and the construction of vessels for traversing
the sea.
Curiosity may have prompted those who lived
on the coast to visit a neighbouring island ; or the
desire of conquest, to cross a narrow channel, to
invade a foreign land, as Pliny observes in the case
of the Trojans ; but it is more probable that the
occupation of the fisherman was the principal
cause and promoter of this useful art : those who
at first employed themselves merely on a sheltered
river, venturing at length in the same boat upon
the sea, and having acquired confidence from habit,
extending their excursions along the coast ; for
it was long, before the art of navigation was so far
improved, that the boldest mariner * dared to trust
his vessel out of sight of land.
The first sea voyages, of which we have any
direct notice, are those undertaken by the Egyptians
at the early period when they led colonies into
Greece ; but the people to whom the art of navi-
gation was most indebted, who excelled all others
in nautical skill, and who carried the spirit of ad-
* " lUi robur et aes triplex
Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci
Commisit pelago ratem
Primus, nee timuit praecipitem Africum
Decertantem Aquilonibus."
Hor. i. Od. iii. 9
P 3
214 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
venture far beyond any contemporary nation, were
the Phoenicians ; and those bold navigators even
visited the coast of Britain, in quest of tin.
The fleets of Sesostris and the third Remeses
certainly date at a very remote age, and some Phoe-
nician sailors, sent by Neco * on a voyage of dis-
covery, to ascertain the form of the African con-
tinent, actually doubled the Cape of Good Hope,
about twenty-one centuries before the time of
Bartholomew Diaz, and Vasco de Gama; but it
was not till the discovery of the compass t that
navigation became perfected, and the uncertain
method of ascertaining the course by the stars t
gave place to the more accurate calculations of
modern times.
After the fall of Tyre, and the building of
Alexandria, Egypt became famous as a commercial
country, and the emporium of the East ; the riches
of India, brought to Berenice, Myos-Hormos, and
other ports on the Red Sea, passed through it, to
be distributed over various parts of the Roman
empire ; and it continued to benefit by these
advantages, until a new route was opened to
India by the Portuguese, round the Cape of Good
Hope.
* Vide Vol, I. p. 158. Pliny mentions others who performed this
voyage, lib. ii. 07.
+ Tlie Chinese used the compass at a very early period ; and Marco
Polo probably introdiicetl it from China, about 1290 a.d., 12 years
before Gioia of Amalfi, its supposed inventor. The loadstone (Hera-
clius lapis) was different from the Magnetis of Theophrastus, (on
stones, 73.) as is explained by Hesychius, " jMayj'jjric \i9og . . . apyvpo)
tfi(ptpi]Q ovaa, >/ ^i 'UpciKKsoiTiQ rov mSijpov iiriffTarai" Plutarch says the
loadstone was mentioned by Manetho, de Is. s, G2,
t Vide Horn. Odyss. v. 272.
CHAP. IX. TIN AND OTHER METALS. 215
THE USE OF TIN AND OTHER METALS.
It is difficult to explain how, at that early period,
so great a value came to be attached to tin, that
the Phoenicians should have thought it worth while
to undertake a voyage of such a length, and at-
tended with so much risk, in order to obtain it ;
even allowing that a high price was paid for this
commodity in Egypt, and other countries, where the
different branches of metallurgy were carried to
great perfection. It was mixed with other metals,
particularly copper, which was hardened by an alloy
of tin; and was employed, according to Homer, for
the raised work on the exterior of shields *, as in
that of Achilles ; for making greaves t ; and bind-
ing various parts of defensive armour t ; as well as
for household § and ornamental purposes ; and,
which is very remarkable, the word kassiteroSy
used by the poet to designate it, is the same as the
Arabic name kasdeer \\ , by which the metal is still
known in the East, being probably derived from the
ancient Phoenician.
* Horn. II. xviii. 563. 374.
+ Horn. II. xviii. 612. " Ttv^t ^t oi Kvrj^i^ac eavov Kaaninpoio."
T Horn. n. xviii. i?^. " XaX/cov ^'cv irvpi fSaWiv arrtipia, KaaaiTspov re
Kai ■)(^pv(TOv TijiriVTa, Kai apyvpov."
§ No copper vessels have yet been found, even of Roman time,
washed with tin, and few only with silver. Several gilt have been met
with in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. Dioscorides mentions tinned boilers,
" HQ Xt^rjra KiKaaaiTipwfievov j3aX\t" lib. i. C. 38. He is supposed to have
been physician to Antony and Cleopatra, or to have lived in the time
of Nero. Vide also PHn. xxxiv. 17., on the tinning of copper vessels.
II It M'ill be observed that the accent in the Greek is over the same
part of the word, Kuaairipog. It is, I trust, unnecessary to observe that
the ancient Greeks pronounced according to accent, as they now do in
Greece, or to point out the origin of those marks.
p 4
216 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
We have no means of ascertaining the exact
period when the Phoenicians first visited our coasts
in search of tin ; some have supposed about the
year 400 or 450 before our era : but tliat this metal
was employed many ages previously, is shown from
tlie bronze vessels* and implements discovered at
Thebes, and other parts of Egypt. It cannot,
however, be inferred that the mines of Britain were
known at that remote period, since the intercourse
with India may have furnished the Egyptians with
tin ; and the Phoenicians probably obtained it from
Spain t and India, long before they visited those
distant coasts, and discovered the richness of our
productive mines, t Ezekiel, indeed, expressly says
that the Tyrians received tin, as well as other me-
tals, from Tarshish ; which, whether it was situated,
as some suppose, in Arabia § or on the Indian coast,
traded in the productions of the latter country ;
and the lamentation ll of the prophet on the fall of
Tyre, though written as late as the year 588 before
our era, relates to a commercial intercourse with
that place, which had been established, and con-
tinued to exist, from a much earlier period. ^
* Bronze is made of copper and tin ; brass of copper and zinc.
f The mines of Spain and Portugal produce very little tin. There
are some in Saxony and Bohemia. Those of Malacca are very pro-
ductive.
:}: In the year 1791 about 3000 tons of tin were taken from the mines
of Cornwall," of which 2200 tons were sold in the European market for
72/. each, the remaining 800 being sent to India and China at 62/. a ton.
Univ. Diet, of Arts and Sciences, Tin.
§ Bruce supposed it to be Mokha.
II Ezek. xxvii. 12. " Tarshish was thy merchant by reason of the
nuiltitude of all kind of riches; with silver, iron, //«, and lead, they
trailed in thy fairs."
1 The gold of Ophir being mentioned by Job is one of many proofs
of an earlv intercourse with India. Job xxii. 24.
CHAP. IX. EARLY USE OF TIN. ^17
It is probable that the Phoenicians supplied the
Egyptians with this article, even before it was
brought from Spain and Britain. The commercial
intercourse of the two nations dated at a most
remote epoch * j the produce and coasts of Arabia
and India appear to have been known to the
Phoenicians, long before any other people ; and
some have even supposed that they migrated from
the Red Sea to the shores of Syria.t
That the productions of India already came
to Egypt, at the early period of Joseph's arrival
in that country, is evident from the spices which
the Ishmaelites t were carrying to sell there ;
and the amethysts, hgematite§, lapis lazzuli, and
other objects || found at Thebes of the time
of the third Thothmes, and succeeding Pharaohs,
argue that the intercourse was constantly kept
up.
The first mention of tin, though not the earliest
proof of its use, is in connection with the spoils
taken by the Israelites from the people of Midian,
in the year 1452 b.c, where they are commanded
by Moses to purify *' the gold and the silver, the
brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead," by passing
it through the fire.^ Its combination with other
metals is noticed by Isaiah, in the year 76O before
our era, who alludes to it as an alloy mixed with
* Herodot. i. 1. f Hcrodot. loc. cit.
t Gen. xxxvii. 25.
§ This kind of iron ore is found also in Spain, Italy, Germany, and
England.
II I might, perhaps, add siderite.
"![ Numb. xxxi. 22. Tin in Hebrew is called l)cdecl, "jm.
218 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX,
a more valuable substance* ; and Ezekielt shows
that it was used for this purpose in connection with
silver.
Strabo, Diodorus, Pliny and other writers, men-
tion certain islands discovered by the Phoenicians,
which, from the quantity of tin they produced,
obtained the name Cassiterides ; and are supposed
to have been the cluster now known as the Sciily
Isles, and to have included part of the coast of
Cornwall itself. 1^ The secret of their discovery was
carefully concealed, says Strabo §, from all other
persons, and the Phoenician vessels continued to sail
from Gades (Cadiz) in quest of this commodity,
without its being known from whence they obtained
it ; though many endeavours were made by the
Romans at a subsequent period to ascertain the
secret, and to share the benefits of this lucrative
trade.
So anxious, indeed, were the Phoenicians to
retain tlieir monopoly, that on one occasion when
a Roman vessel pursued a trader bound to the
spot, the latter purposely steered his vessel on a
shoal, preferring to suffer shipwreck, provided he
involved his pursuers in the same fate, to the
disclosure of his country's secret. His artifice
succeeded ; the Roman crew, exposed to additional
risk in consequence of being unprepared for the
* Isaiah, i. 23. " I will .... purge away thy dross, and take away
all thy tin."
f Ezek. xxii. 18. 20. " They are brass, and tin, and iron, and lead,
in the midst of the furnace ; they are even the dross of silver."
:|; Beckniann and Borlase are also of this opinion.
^ Strabo, lib.iii. ad fin. p. 121.
CHAP. IX. TIN ; WHERE FOUND. ^IQ
sudden catastrophe, were all lost with their foun-
dered vessel, and the Phoenician, having the good
fortune to escape with his life, was rewarded from
the public treasury for his devotion, and the sacri-
fice he had made. *
Pliny mentions a report of " white lead," or tin,
being brought from certain islands of the Atlantic ;
yet he treats it as a " fable," and proceeds to state
that it was found in Lusitania and Gallicia, and
was the same metal t known to the Greeks in the
days of Homer by the name cassiteron t ; but
Diodorus and Strabo, after noticing the tin of
Spain and the Cassiterides, affirm that it was also
brought to Massilia (Marseilles) from the coast of
Britain. §
Spain, in early times, was to the Phoenicians
what America, at a later period, was to the Spa-
niards ; and no one can read the accounts of the
immense wealth derived from the mines of that
country, in the writings of Diodorus and other
authors, without being struck by the relative
situation of the Phoenicians and ancient Spaniards,
and the followers of Cortes or Pizarro and the
inhabitants of Mexico or Peru.
*' The whole of Spain," says Strabo, "abounds
with mines . . . and in no country are gold, silver,
copper, and iron in such abundance or of such
* Strabo, loc. cit.
t Beckniann, in his History of Inventions (vol. iv. p. 10. 20.), doubts
the Stannum of Pliny, or the Cassiteron of Homer, being tin. Pliny's
account of Stannum is obscure.
J Plin. XXXV. 16. He places the Cassiterides off the coast of Celti-
beria, lib. iv. 22.
§ Strabo, lib.iii. p. 101. and Diodor. v. 38.
2^0 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
good quality : even the rivers and torrents bring
down gold in their beds, and some is found
in the sand : " and the fanciful assertion of Posi-
donius, regarding the richness of the country in
precious metals, surpassed the phantoms created
in the minds of the conquerors of America.
The Phoenicians purchased gold, silver, tin,
and other metals from the inhabitants of Spain and
the Cassiterides, by giving in exchange earthenware
vessels, oil, salt, bronze instruments, and other
objects of little value, in the same manner as the
Spaniards on their arrival at Hispaniola ; and such
was the abundance of silver, that after loading
their ships with full cargoes, they stripped the lead
from their anchors, and substituted the same weight
of silver. *
METALLURGY.
A strong evidence of the skill of the Egyptians
in working metals, and of the early advance-
ment they made in this art, is derived from their
success in the mxanagement of different alloys ;
which, as M. Goguett observes t, is further ar-
gued from the casting of the golden calf, and still
more from Moses being able to burn the metal and
reduce it to powder ; a secret which he could only
* Diodor. lib. v. 35.
f Goguet, Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des Sciences, tome ii. liv. 2.
ch.iv. p. 145.
X Goguet is wrong in supposing that the smelting of tin is one of the
most difficult operations in metallurgy, tome ii, liv. ii. ch.iv. p. 146.
Tin melts more readily than lead : the latter requires a heat of 550°
Fahr., the former only of 420°.
CHAP. IX. BURNING THE GOLDEN CALF. 221
have learnt in Egypt. It is said in Exodus *,
that " Moses took the calf which they had made,
and burnt it in the fire, and ground it to powder,
and strewed it upon the water, and made the
children of Israel drink of itj" an operation which,
according to the French savant^ *' is known by all
who work in metals to be very difficult."
" Commentators' heads," he adds, " have been
much perplexed to explain how Moses burnt and
reduced the gold to powder. Many have offered
vain and improbable conjectures, but an experienced
chemist has removed every difficulty upon the sub-
ject, and has suggested this simple process. In the
place of tartaric acid, which we employ, the Hebrew
legislator used natron, which is common in the East.
What follows, respecting his making the Israelites
drink this powder, proves that he was perfectly
acquainted with the whole effect of the operation.
He wished to increase the punishment of their dis-
obedience, and nothing could have been more suit-
able ; for gold reduced and made into a draught,
in the manner I have mentioned, has a most dis-
agreeable taste."
GOLD WORKING GILDING.
The use of gold, for jewellery and various arti-
cles of luxury, dates from the most remote ages.
Pharaoh having *' arrayed "t Joseph "in vestures
of fine linen, put a gold chain about his neck ; "
and the jewels of silver and gold borrowed from
* Exod. xxxii. 20.
f This custom, of conferring rank by presenting a suitable dress (or
kkweh), still continues in the East.
2^2
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
CHAP. IX.
GOLD WORKING.
223
the Egyptians by the Israelites * at the time of
their leaving Egypt, (out of which the golden calf
was afterwards madet,) suffice to prove the great
quantity of precious metals wrought at that time
into female ornaments. It is not from the Scrip-
tures alone that the skill of tlie Egyptian gold-
smiths may be inferred ; the sculptures of Thebes
and Beni Hassan afford their additional testimony ;
and the numerous gold and silver vases, inlaid
work, and jewellery, represented in common use,
show the great advancement they had already
made, at a remote period, in this branch of art.
The engraving of gold, the mode of casting it, and
inlaying it w4th stones, were evidently known at
the same time; they are mentioned in the Bible t,
and numerous specimens of this kind of work have
been found in Egypt.
The origin of the sign signifying gold has been
No. 374 n.
fgaie articles of jewellery.
c 4
Goldsmiths. Thebes.
The hieroglyphics read " goldsmith," or " worker in gold."
* Exod. iii. 22. and xii. 35.
j- Exod. xxxii. 2, 3.
4: Exod. xxxii. 4. Aaron " fashioned it with a graving tool, after
he had made it a molten calf." On engraving and setting stones, I'ide
Exod. xxviii, 9. and II.
224 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
happily explained by the ingenious Champollion ;
as the bowl* in which the metal was washed, the
cloth through which it was strained, and the
dropping of the watei\ united into one character,
at once indicative of the process and the metal.
Much cannot, of course, be expected from the
objects found in the excavated tombs, to illustrate
the means employed in smelting the ore, or to
disclose any of the secrets they possessed in metal-
lurgy ; and little is given in the paintings, beyond
the use of the blow-pipe, the forceps t, and their
mode of concentrating heat, by raising cheeks of
metal round three sides of the fire, in which the
crucibles were placed. Of the latter, indeed, there
is no indication in these subjects, unless it be in
the preceding woodcut t ; but their use is readily
suggested, and some which have been found in
Egypt are preserved in the museum of Berlin.
They are nearly five inches in diameter at the
mouth, and about the same in depth, and present
t- d
No. 375. Blowjiipe, and small fireplace with cheeks to confine and reflect the heat. Thebes.
* Or the frame over which the cloth was laid. Vide woodcut,
No. .374. a. fi.^. a.
f Bronze forceps, tongs, and tweezers have been found, retaining
their spring perfectly.
X Woodcut, No. 374-. r.
CH. IX. CRUCIBLES. WORKING OF METALS. '2^5
the ordinary form and appearance of those used
at the present day.
From the mention* of earrings and bracelets, and
jewels of silver and gold, in the days of Abraham, it
is evident that in Asia, as well as in Egypt, the art
of metallurgy was known at a very remote period ;
and workmen of the same countries are noticed by
Homer t as excelling in the manufacture of arms,
rich vases, and other objects inlaid or ornamented
with metals. His account of ttie shield of Achilles t
proves the art of working the various substances of
which it was made, copper, tin, gold, and silver, to
have been well understood at that time ; and the
skill required to represent the infinity of subjects
he mentions, was such as no ordinary artisan could
possess ; and unless similar works had been already
made, the poet would not have ventured on the
description he has given.
The ornaments in gold, found in Egypt, con-
sist of rings, bracelets, armlets, necklaces, earrings,
and numerous trinkets belonging to the toilet ;
many of which are of the early times of Osirtasen I.
and Thothmes III., the contemporaries of Joseph
and of Moses. Gold and silver vases, statues, and
other objects of gold and silver, of silver inlaid with
gold, and of bronze inlaid with the precious metals,
were also common at the same time ; and besides
those manufactured in the country from the pro-
* Gen. xxiv. 47. 53.
f Horn. II. xxiii. 74L A silver cup, the work of the Sidonians,
Od. iv. 618., &c. Vide II. ii. 872. vi. 236., the armour of Glaucus.
% Horn. 11. xviii. 474.
VOL. III. Q
226
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
duce of their own mines*, the Egyptians exacted
an annual tribute from the conquered provinces of
Asia and Africa, in gold and silver, and in vases
made of those materials.
I have frequently had occasion to notice the
elegance of the Egyptian vases, whether of gold or
other materials. Many other objects were equally
graceful in their form, and the devices which orna-
mented them ; and among these I may cite the
golden baskets in the tomb of Remeses, which in
No. 376 Golden baskets represented in the tomb of king Rameses III. Thebes.
their shape call to mind our European bread
baskets.
At Beni Hassan, the process of washing the ore,
smelting, or fusing the metal with the help of the
blow-pipe, and fashioning it for ornamental pur-
poses, weighing it and taking an account of the
quantity so made up, and other occupations of
the goldsmith, are represented ; but, as might be
supposed, these subjects merely suffice, as they
were intended, to give a general indication of the
goldsmith's trade, without attempting to describe
the means employed, t
* Diodorus mentions the silver mines of Egypt which produced
3,200 myriads of minae, but I am not aware of their position. Vide
Diodor. 'i, 49., and supra. Vol. I. p. 113. and 234.
t Vide wood- cut, No. 374.
CHAP. IX. GOLD MINES OF EGYPT. ^^7
The gold mines of Egypt, though mentioned by
Agatharcides and later writers, and worked even by
the Arab Caliphs, long remained unknown, and
their position has only been ascertained a few years
since, by M. Linant and Mr. Bonomi. They lie in
the Bisharee desert, or, as Edreesee and Aboolfeda
call it, the land of Biga * or Boja, about seventeen
or eighteen days' journey to the south-eastward
from Derow; which is situated on the Nile, a little
above Kom Ombo, the ancient Ombos.
Those two travellers met with some Cufic
funereal inscriptions there, which from their dates
show that the mines were worked in the years
339 A.H. (951 A.D.), and 378 a.h. (989 a.d.);
the former being in the fifth year of the Caliph
Mostukfee Billah, a short time before the arrival
of the Fatemites in Egypt, the latter in the four-
teenth of El Azeez, the second of the Fatemite
dynasty.
They continued to be worked till a much later
period, and were afterwards abandoned, the value
of the gold, as Aboolfeda states t, barely covering the
expences ; nor has Mohammed Ali, who sent to
examine them and obtain specimens of the ore,
found it worth while to re-open them.
The matrix is quartz ; and so diligent a search
did the Egyptians establish, throughout the whole
of the deserts east of the Nile, for this precious
metal, that I never remember to have seen a vein
* Bigah iS.^s:^-'. or Begga is the name which the Bishareeh Arabs give
themselves. *
f Aboolfeda's Description of Egypt, s. 68.
Q 2
228 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
of quartz in any of the primitive ranges there, which
had not been carefully examined by their miners ;
certain portions having been invariably picked out
from the fissures in which it lay, and broken into
small fragments. At a spot near the quarries
of Breccia Verde, on the road from Coptos to
Kossayr, the working of quartz veins has been
carried on to such an extent, and on so grand a
scale 5 the houses of the miners are so numerous ;
the consequence of the place so strongly argued,
by the presence of a small stone temple bearing
the name and sculptures of Ptolemy Evergetes I. ;
and the length of time the workmen inhabited it,
so distinctly proved by the large mounds of broken
pottery found there, (from which the valley has
derived the name of Wadee Foakheer), that I
cannot suppose their labours to have been confined
to the mere cutting of tazzi, sarcophagi, fonts,
vases, columns, and similar objects from the
breccia quarries, which, too, are distant three
miles from this spot ; and the number of one
thousand three hundred and twenty huts, which I
counted in the different windings of the AVadee
Foakheer, containing far more workmen than the
quarries would require, appears conclusive respect-
ing the object they had in view, and suggests that
they had succeeded in finding gold here also,
though probably in far less quantities than in the
mines of the more southerly district.
The gold mines are said by Aboolfeda to be
situated at El Allaga (or Ollagee) ; but Eshuranib
(or Eshuanib), the principal place, is about three
CHAP. IX. GOLD MINES THEIR POSITION. 229
days' journey beyond Wadee Allaga, according to
Mr. Bonomi, to whom I am indebted for the fol-
lowing account of the mines. *' The direction of
the excavations depends," as Diodorus states, ** on
that of the strata in which the ore is found, and
the position of the various shafts differ accordingly.
As to the manner of extracting the metal, some
notion may be given by a description of the ruins
at Eshuranib, the largest station, where sufficient
remains to explain the process they adopted. The
principal excavation, according to M. Linant's
measurement, is about 180 feet deep : it is a
narrow oblique chasm, reaching a considerable
way down the rock. In the valley, near the most
accessible part of the excavation, are several huts,
built of the unhewn fragments of the surrounding
hills, their walls not more than breast high, per-
haps the houses * of tlie excavators or the guardians
of the mine ; and separated from them by the
ravine or course of the torrent, is a group of houses,
about three hundred in number, laid out very regu-
larly in straight lines. In those nearest the mines
lived the workmen who were employed to break
the quartz into small fi'agments, the size of a bean,
from whose hands the pounded stone passed to the
persons who ground it in hand-mills, similar to
those now used for corn in the valley of the Nile,
made of a granitic stone ; one of which is to be
found in almost every house at these mines, either
entire or broken.
* Similar huts are met with at all the quarries and mines of these
deserts.
Q 3
230 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX,
*' The quartz thus reduced to powder was washed
on incUned tables, furnished with two cisterns, all
built of fragments of stone collected there ; and near
these inclined planes are generally found little white
mounds, the residue of the operation. Besides the
numerous remains of houses in this station, are two
large buildings, with towers at the angles, built of
the hard blackish granitic, yet luminous rock, that
prevails in the district. The valley has many trees,
and in a high part of the torrent bed is a sort of
island, or isolated bank on which we found many
tomb-stones, some written in the ancient Cufic
character, very similar to those at E'Souan."
Such is the description Mr. Bonomi has been
kind enough to send me of the gold mines of
Allaga; and as Diodorus's account of tlie mining
operations, and the mode of extracting the gold,
is highly interesting, I shall introduce some extracts
from his work.
The historian states that those who worked in
the mines were principally captives taken in war,
and men condemned to hard labour for crimes,
or in consequence of offences against the govern-
ment. They were bound in fetters, and obliged
to work night and day ; every chance of escape
being carefully obviated by the watchfulness of
the guards, who, in order that persuasion might
not be used to induce them to relax in their duty,
or feelings of compassion be excited for the suf-
ferings of their fellow-countrymen, were foreign
soldiers, ignorant of the Egyptian language.
Whether this system was introduced by the
CHAP. IX. MEN CONDEMNED TO THE MINES. 231
Ptolemies and the latter Pharaohs, or was always
carried on in the earliest times, it is difficult to
say, Diodorus confining his remarks to the state of
the mines during his own time. " The soil," says
the historian, " naturally black *, is traversed with
veins of marble t of excessive whiteness, surpass-
ing in brilliancy the most shining substances; out
of which the overseers cause the gold to be dug,
by the labour of a vast multitude of people ; for
the kings of Egypt condemn to the mines no-
torious criminals, prisoners of war, persons con-
victed by false accusations t , or the victims of
resentment. And not only the individuals them-
selves, but sometimes even their whole family are
doomed to this labour ; with the view of punishing
the guilty, and profiting by their toil.
" The vast numbers employed in these mines are
bound in fetters, and compelled to work day and
night without intermission, and without the least
hope of escape ; for they set over them barbarian
soldiers, who speak a foreign language, so that
there is no possibility of conciliating them by per-
suasion, or the kind feelings which result from
familiar converse.
*' When the earth containing the gold is hard,
they soften it by the application of fire, and when
it has been reduced to such a state that it yields
* The rock in which the veins of quartz run is an argillaceous
schist.
f Diodor. iii. 11. He evidently alludes to the quartz, which is the
matrix of the ore, by the expressions " fiapfiapov," " rijv ^lap/iapi'Covffav
irtTpav" and " a7rofTTi\€ov<yi]g TrtrpcKj."
% More probably of false accusations.
Q 4
232 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
to moderate labour, several thousands (myriads)
of these unfortunate people break it up with iron
picks. Over the whole work presides an engineer,
who views and selects the stone, and points it
out to the labourers. The strongest of them,
provided with iron chisels, cleave the marble-
shining rock by mere force, without any attempt at
skill ; and in excavating the shafts below ground
they follow the direction of the shining stratum,
without keeping to a straight line.
*' In order to see in these dark windings, they
fasten lamps to their foreheads, having their bodies
painted, sometimes of one and sometimes of an-
other colour, according to the nature of the rock j
and as they cut the stone it falls in masses on the
floor, the overseers urging them to the work with
commands and blows. They are followed by
little boys, who take away the fragments as they
fall and carry them out into the open air. Those
who are above thirty years of age are employed
to pound pieces of the stone, of certain dimen-
sions, with iron pestles in stone mortars, until
reduced to the size of a lentil. It is then trans-
ferred to women and old men, who put it into mills
arranged in a long row, two or three persons being
employed at the same mill, and it is ground until
reduced to a fine powder.
"No attention is paid to their persons, they
have not even a piece of rag to cover themselves;
and, so wretched is their condition, that every one
who witnesses it deplores the excessive misery
they endure. No rest, no intermission from toil,
CHAP. IX. MODE OF WORKING THE MINES. 233
are given either to the sick or maimed : neither
the weakness of age nor women's infirmities are
regarded ; all are driven to their work with the
lash, tiU, at last, overcome with the intolerable
weight of their afflictions, they die in the midst
of their toil. So that these unhappy creatures
always expect worse to come than what they
endure at the present, and long for death as far
preferable to life.
" At length the masters take the stone thus
ground to powder, and carry it away to undergo the
final process. They spread it upon a broad table a
little inclined 5 and, pouring water upon it, rub the
pulverised stone until all the earthy matter is separ-
rated, which, flowing away with the water, leaves
the heavier particles behind on the board. This
operation is often repeated, the stone being rubbed
lightly with the hand : they then draw up the
useless and earthy substance with fine sponges,
gently applied, until the gold comes out quite
pure. Other workmen then take it away by
weight and measure, and putting it with a fixed
proportion of lead, salt, a little tin, and barley
bran, into earthen crucibles well closed with clay,
leave it in a furnace for five successive days and
nights; after which it is suffered to cool. The
crucibles are then opened, and nothing is found in
them but the pure gold, a little diminished in
quantity.
" Such is the method of extracting the gold on
the confines of Egypt, the result of so many and
such great toils. Nature indeed, I think, teaches
234 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
that as gold is obtained with immense labour, so
it is kept with difficulty, creating great anxiety,
and attended in its use both with pleasure and
grief."
GILDING.
In the early stages of society when gold first
began to be used, idols, ornaments, or other objects,
were made of the metal in its pure state, till being
found too soft, and too easily worn away, an alloy
was added to harden it, at the same time that it
increased the bulk of the valuable material. As
men advanced in experience, they found that the
great ductility of gold enabled them to cover sub-
stances of all kinds with thin plates of the metal,
giving all the effect of the richness and brilliancy
they admired in solid gold ornaments ; and the
gilding of bronze, stone, silver, and wood, was
speedily adopted.
The leaves so used were at first thick, but
skill, resulting from experience, soon showed to
what a degree of fineness they could be reduced ;
and we find that in Egypt substances of various
kinds were overlaid with fine gold leaf, at the
earliest periods of which the monuments remain,
even in the time of the first Osirtasen. Some
things still continued to be covered with thick
leaf, but this was from choice, and not in conse-
quence of any want of skill in the workmen ; and
in the early age of Thothmes III., they were
already acquainted with all the various methods
of applying gold ; whether in leaf: or by inlay-
CHAP. IX. GILDING AND GOLD LEAF. 235
ing : or by beating it into other metals, previously
tooled with devices to receive it.
That their knowledge of gilding * was coeval
with the sojourn of the Israelites in the country is
evident from the direct mention of it in the Bible,
the ark of shittim wood made by Moses being over-
laid with pure gold; and the casting of the metal
is noticed on the same occasion t : nor can we
doubt that the art was derived by the Jews from
Egypt, or that the Egyptians had long before been
acquainted with all those secrets of metallurgy, in
which the specimens that remain prove them to
have so eminently excelled.
The method devised by the Egyptians for beating
out the leaf is unknown to us, but from the ex-
treme fineness of some of that covering wooden
and other ornaments, found at Thebes, we may
conclude it was done nearly in the same way as
formerly in Europe, between parchment; and
perhaps some membrane taken from the intestines
of animals was also employed by them.
In Europe the skin of an unborn calf was at first
substituted for the parchment previously used, but
in the beginning of the lyth century, the German
gold-beaters having obtained a fine pellicle from
the entrails of cattle t, found that they could beat
* Pliny mentions the lycophoron, a composition used for attaching
gold to wood. Plin. xxxv. 6. " Sinopidis Pontica; selibra, silis lucidi
libris X., et melini Grseciensis diiabus mixtis tritisque una, per dies xii.,
leucophoron fit, hoc est, glutinum auri, cum inducitur ligno." Vide
Theophrast. on stones, s. 46.
+ Exod.xxv. II, 12.
:j: This " pelle del budello," is mentioned by Lancellotti, who wrote
in the year 1636.
236 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
gold much thinner than before, and this still con-
tinues to be used, and is known to us under the
name of gold-beaters' skin. "About the year 1621,"
says Beckmann*, "Merunne excited general asto-
nishment, when he showed that the Parisian gold-
beaters could beat an ounce of gold into sixteen
hundred leaves, which together covered a surface of
one hundred and five square feet. But in I7II)
when the pellicles discovered by the Germans came
to be used in Paris, Reaumur found that an ounce
of gold in the form of a cube, five and a quarter
lines at most in length, breadth and thickness, and
which covered only a surface of about 27 square
lines, could be so extended by the gold-beaters, as
to cover a surface of more than 1466 J square feet.
This extension, therefore, is nearly one half more
than was possible about a century before."
Many gilt bronze vases, implements of various
kinds, trinkets, statues, toys, and other objects, in
metal and wood, have been discovered in the tombs
of Thebes : the faces of mummies are frequently
found overlaid with thick gold leaf; the painted
cloth, the wooden coffin, were also profusely orna-
mented in this manner ; and the whole body itself
of the deceased was sometimes gilded, previous
to its being enveloped in the bandages. Not
only were small objects appertaining to the service
of the gods, and connected with religion, or ar-
ticles of luxury and show, in the temples, tombs,
or private houses, so decorated ; the sculptures on
* Vide Beckmann's valuable work, the History of Inventions, vol.iv.
on Gilding.
CHAP. IX. USE OF GOLD AND SILVER. 237
the lofty walls of an adytum, the ornaments of
a colossus, the doorways of the temples, and
parts of numerous large monuments were like-
wise covered with gilding ; of which the wooden
heifer which served as a sepulchre to the body
of king Mycerinus's daughter*, the sculptures
at the temple of Kalabshi in Nubia, the statue
of Minerva sent to Cyrene by Amasis t, and the
Sphinx at the pyramids may be cited as instances.
Gold is supposed by many to have been usedt
some time before silver, but the earliest authority,
which is that of the Bible, mentions both these
metals at the most remote age. The Egyptian
sculptures represent silver as well as gold in the
time of the third Thothmes, and silver rings have
been found of the same epoch. § Abraham was said
to have been *' very rich, in cattle, in silver, and in
gold II;'* and the use of silver as money ^ is dis-
tinctly pointed out in the purchase of the field of
Ephron, with its cave**, which Abraham bought
for "four hundred shekels of silver, current money
with the merchant."
On this occasion, as usual, the price paid was
settled by weight, a custom retained among the
* Herodot. ii. 129. 132.
+ Herodot. ii. 182.
I Pliny attributes the art of working gold to Cadmus, vii, 56.
§ In the museum of Alnwick Castle is a silver ring of Amunoph III.
Silver rings and ornaments are less common of every epoch than gold.
II Gen. xiii. 2. But no mention is made of it as money, till after
Abraham's return from Egypt, as Goguet has justly observed," torn. i. 1. i.
c. 1.
1 The word silver, riDD. is commonly used in Hebrew to signify
money, as argent in French.
** Gen. xxiii. 16, 17.
238 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
Egyptians, Hebrews*, and other eastern people,
till a late period ; and, indeed, until a government
stamp, or some fixed value was given to money,
this could be the only metliod of ascertaining
the price paid, and of giving satisfaction to both
parties. Thus Joseph's brethren, when they disco-
vered the money returned into their sacks, brought
it back to Egypt, observing that it was "in full
weight ; " and the paintings of Thebes frequently
represent persons in the act of weighing t gold, on
the purchase of articles in the market. This
continued to be the custom when rings t of gold
and silver were used in Egypt for money, and even
to the time of the Ptolemies, who established a
coinage of gold, silver, and copper, in the country.
These princes were not the first who introduced
coined money into Egypt : it had been current
there during the Persian occupation of the country;
and Aryandes, who was governor of Egypt, under
Cambyses and Darius, struck silver coins, in imita-
tion of the gold Darics of his sovereign, for which
act of presumption he was condemned to death. §
It is uncertain, as Pliny observes, when and
where the art of stamping money originated. He-
rodotus attributes it to the Lydians, *' the first
people who coined gold and silver for their use ll ;
Servius TuUius made^ copper money, about the
* Fide Yol. II. p. 11. note.
f Vide woodcut, No. 78. p. 10. Vol. II.
j The Chinese and Japanese have a sort of ring money, or at least
round coins with a hole in the centre, which are strung together. Vide
PHn. xxxiii. 1.
§ Herodot. iv. 166.
II Herodot. i. 93. V. Jul. Poll. onom. 9 ; vi. 83, Lucan. Phars. vi. 402,
1 Plin. liii. 3.
CHAP. IX. STAMPED MONEY. 2S.9
year 560 b. c, and impressed upon it the figure of
a sheep, " pecus," whence it obtained the name
"pecunia"; silver was coined at Athens* 512
years before our era, and at Rome, five years
before the first Punic wart, or 269 B.c.t, and
some suppose Phidon, King of Argos, to have
invented weights and measures, and silver coin-
age §, in the year 895 b. c. 1|
Though stamped money was not used by the
ancient Egyptians, we have evidence of weights
and measures having been invented by them long
before the Greeks existed as a nation; and it is
probable that they were known even in Greece
previous to the time of Phidon.
The balance used for weighing gold differed
slightly from those of ordinary construction, and
was probably more delicately formed. It was made,
as usual, with an upright pole, rising from a broad
base or stand, and a cross beam turning on a pin
at its summit ; but instead of strings suspending the
scales, was an arm on either side, terminating in a
hook, to which the gold was attached in small
bags.^
Large scales were generally a flat wooden board,
with four ropes, attached to a ring at the extremity
* Aristot. CTlconom. lib. ii.
+ Plin. loc. cit.
t Livy however mentions the Denarius (a silver coin), much earlier.
B. c. 337, (viii. 11.). Gold was not struck at Rome till b. c. 207.
§ " In iEgina." Strabo lib. viii. p. 2.59 ; on the authority of Ephorus.
II Pausanias says, gold and silver money was unknown in the age
of Polydorus, king of Sparta, who died n. c. 724, (lib. iii. c. 12.). That
it was not in use at the time of the Trojan wai', is shown by Homer.
Vide II. vii. 473., their mode of buying wine.
H Vide woodcut, No. 374.
240 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
of the beam ; and those of smaller size were of
bronze, one of which I found in Upper Egypt,
one and a half inch in diameter, pierced near the
edge in three places, for the strings.
The principle of the common balance was simple
and ingenious ; the beam passed through a ring
suspended from a horizontal rod, immediately above
and parallel to it, and when equally balanced, the
ring, which was large enough to allow the beam to
play freely, showed when the scales were equally
poised, and had the additional effect of preventing
the beam tilting, when the goods were taken out of
one, and the weights suffered to remain in the
other.* To the lower part of the ring a small plum-
met was fixed, and this being touched by the hand,
and found to hang freely, indicated, without the ne-
cessity of looking at the beam, that the weight was
just. The figure of a baboon, sometimes placed
upon the top, was not connected in any way with
the balance, but was the emblem of the god Thoth,
the regulator of measures, of time, and of writing,
in his character of the moon ; but I do not find
any notion of the goddess of Justice being con-
nected with the balance, except in the judgment
scenes of the dead.
The pair of scales was the ordinary and, appa-
rently, only kind of balance used by the Egyptians ;
no instance of the steel-yard being met with in
the paintings of Thebes, or of Beni Hassan : and I
conclude that the introduction of the latter is con-
fined to a Roman era.
* r?V/(? woodcut, No. 78. Vol.11, p. 10.
CHAP. IX. THE SCALES AND BALANCE. 241
The Egyptians liad another kind of balance, in
which the equaUsation of the opposite weights was
ascertained by the phimmet ; and this last, whose
invention has been ascribed by Phny to Daedalus, is
shown to have been known and applied in Egypt
at least as early as the time of Osirtasen, the con-
temporary of Joseph.
COPPER, BRONZE, IRON.
For ordinary purposes copper was most com-
monly used ; arms, vases, statues, instruments, and
implements of every kind, articles of furniture,
and numerous other objects, were made of this
metal hardened by an alloy of tin, and even chisels
for cutting stone, as well as carpenters' tools, and
knives, were of bronze. It is generally allowed
that copper or bronze, was known long before
iron*, and though Tubal-Cain is said to have been
" the instructor of every artificer in brass and
w'0?2t," no direct mention is made of iron arms t
or tools § till after the Exodus ; and some are even
inclined to doubt the harzel of the Hebrews beino;
really that metal.
According to the Arundelian marbles, iron was
known one hundred and eighty-eight years before
the Trojan war, about 1370 years b. c, but Hesiod,
Plutarch II, and others, limit its discovery to a much
* Tims Lucretius, " Sed prius aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus,"
lib.v. 1292.
-f- Gen, iv. 22. J Numb. xxxv. 16.
§ Deut. xxvii. 3. || Paus. Grec. lib. iii. c. 3. Lacon.
VOL. III. R
€42 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
later period, after the capture of Troy. Homer,
however, distinctly mentions its use* ; and that
there is little reason to doubt the sideros of the poet
being iron, is shown by the simile t, derived from
the quenching of iron in water, which he applies
to the hissing noise produced on piercing the eye
of Polyphemus with the pointed stake, thus ren-
dered by Pope :
" And as when armourers temper in the ford
The keen-edg'd poleaxe, or the shining sword.
The red hot metal hisses in the lake,
Thus in his eyeball hiss'd the plunging stake."
Among the earliest authorities for the use of iron,
may be cited the bedstead of Og the king of
Bashant, who is said to have lived about the year
1450, before our era; and Thrasyllus§ agrees with
the Arundelian marbles in supposing iron to have
been known before the Trojan war, or indeed one
hundred and fourteen years previous to the found-
ation of Troy II, 1537 before our era. On the other
hand it has been argued, that offerings of iron in the
temples of Greece distinctly showed the value at-
tached to that metal, as well as its limited use for
ordinary purposes, and rings of iron were worn by
the ancients, some of which have been found in the
tombs of Egypt. But these last are of very late date,
long after iron was commonly used, and I possess
* Horn. II. xxiii. 261, &c.
t Horn, Od. ix. 391.
" Qq c' ot' dvrip xa^fff^C TrtktKVV fiiyav, t}t OKSTrapvov,
Eiv vSan -il/vxp'ii I^utttsi fiiya\a ia\ovTa,
'^apfj.aaaojv (to yap avrs ffi^ijpov rt kocitoq ioriv)
Dc rov (71^' 0!f)Qa\jiOQ iKdivt(i) iripi juo;^^'^''"
J Dcut. iii. 11. § Clem. Alex. Strom, i.
II Founded B.C. 1123.
CHAP. IX. EARLY USE OF IRON. 243
one of them, engraved with the figure of Harpo-
crates, which is undoubtedly of a Ptolemaic or
Roman era, and which only claims some degree of
interest, from its bearing a device noticed by Pliny
as becoming fashionable at Rome in his time.*
That iron, as early as the days of Lycurgus, was
held in little estimation, is shown by that legislator
forbidding the introduction of gold and silver in his
republic, and restricting the Spartans to the use of
iron ; and some notion may be formed of its value
at that time by the assertion of Plutarch t, that it
required a cart drawn by two oxen to carry the
small sum of ten minas.
The Jews appear to have been acquainted with
two kinds of iron, previous to the Babylonish cap-
tivity, the barzel which was in common use, and
the northern iron, as well as steel X : even as early
as the days of Job § iron was known ; and Moses
mentions an iron furnace. II
One of the arguments against the early use of
iron^ is the difficulty of smelting the ore, and of
reducing it to a malleable state; and the various
processes required to discover all its most useful
properties, render it less likely to be employed
than a more ductile metal. Gold, silver, and
* Plin. xxxiii. 3. " Jam vero Harpocratem, statuasque ^gyptioriini
numiiium, in dij^itis viri quocjuc portare incipiunt."
f Pint, in Lycurgo.
j Jercin. xv. 12.
^ Job, xxviii. 2. *' Iron is taken out of the earth, anil lirass is molten
out of the stone."
II Dent. iv. 20.
il Pliny says the fabulous Cyclopes were the inventors of the iron-
smith's forge, and the Idaei Dactyli of Crete, according to Ilesiod, the
first to introduce the use of iron. Plin. vii. 56.
R 2
244 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
copper, were easily fused, and a single process
sufficed to make them available for every purpose ;
the principal art required for fabricating imple-
ments of copper depending on the proper propor-
tions and qualities of alloy introduced.
" Those three metals," as Robinson has ob-
served*, '* are found in their perfect state in the
clefts of rocks, in the sides of mountains, or the
channels of rivers. They were accordingly first
known, and first applied to use. But iron, the
most serviceable of all, and to which man is most
indebted t, is never discovered in its perfect form ;
its gross and stnbborn ore must feel twice the
force of fire, and go through two laborious pro-
cesses, before it becomes fit for use. Man was
long acquainted with the other metals before he
acquired the art of fabricating iron, or attained such
ingenuity as to perfect an invention, to which he
is indebted for those instruments wherewith he
subdues the earth and commands all its inha-
bitants."
In the infancy of the arts and sciences, the dif-
ficulty of working iron might long withhold the
secret of its superiority over copper and bronze ;
but it cannot reasonably be supposed that a nation
so advanced, and so eminently skilled in the art of
working metals as the Egyptians, should have
remained ignorant of its use, even if we had no
evidence of its having been known to the Greeks
and other people ; and the constant employment
* Robertson, America, book iv. p. 12o.
f Vide Herodot. i. 68.
CHAP. IX. OF THE USE OF BRONZE. 245
of bronze arms and implements is not a sufficient
argument against their knowledge of iron, since we
find the Greeks and Romans made the same things
of bronze long after the period when iron was uni-
versally known.
Another argument, to show that bronze was
used in Greece before iron, is derived from the
word )(c0^xsug (smith) in Greek, having the signi-
fication of " coppersmith," whether applied to a
worker of copper or iron.* In Latin, on the con-
trary, Jerrumff " an iron," is the word frequently
applied to a sword ; and some have hence argued
the use of iron for those weapons, at the earliest
period, among the Romans. Yet we find that
their swords were constantly made of bronze,
as well as their defensive armour. The Etrus-
cans almost invariably used iron for swords, dag-
gers, spear heads, and other offensive weapons,
and confined bronze to defensive armour ; a much
more reasonable custom, inasmuch as the iron is
more capable of perforating the softer metal : and
if the early Romans did make their swords of iron,
it is probable they adopted the custom from their
Italian neighbours.
After examining numerous authorities, some of
which assert that nations of antiquity were confined
to the use of copper and bronze, while others affirm
that iron was known at a most remote epoch, we
* Honi. Od. ix. 391, Hcrodot. i. G8.
f Those who derive barzel from " bers " the Chaldee and Syriac
word signifying " to perforate," might perhaps suppose ferruni " iron "
taken from " ferire " " to strike."
11 3
246 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
may still remain in uncertainty respecting the
question. But to conclude, from the want of iron
instruments, or arms, bearing the names of early
monarchs of a Pharaonic age, that bronze was alone
used, is neither just nor satisfactory ; since the
decomposition of that metal, especially when buried
for ages in the nitrous soil of Egypt, is so speedy
as to preclude the possibility of its preservation.
Until we know in what manner, and for what sort of
stone, the Egyptians employed bronze tools, the
discovery of them affords no additional light, nor
even argument; since, as I before observed, the
Greeks and Romans continued to make bronze in-
struments of various kinds long after iron was
known to them * ; and the general use of bronze
may have arisen from the greater facility of working
the metal, remelting and casting it afresh, as w^ell as
from its being easier to find than iron : for though
this last, in its various combinations, is more uni-
versally diffused over the face of the globe t, it does
not always occur in a state of which the miner can
easily avail himself, and I only know of one mine
in Egypt worked by the ancients. It lies in the
eastern desert, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
at a place called Hammami, and was discovered by
my friend Mr. Burton, who visited it in 1822, and
found the metal to be in the form of specular and
red iron ore.
In Ethiopia iron was much more abundant than
* Vide Beckmann's History of Inventions, on the early use of steel,
vol. iv,
f As Pliny observes, " Metallorum omnium vena ferri largissima
est," xxxiv. c. 14.
CHAP. IX. WOODEN HOES. 24-7
in Egypt, and Herodotus may be correct in stating
that copper was there a rare metal * ; though we are
not disposed to believe his assertion of prisoners
in that country being bound with golden fetters.
In the sepulchres of Thebes, I have had occasion
to remark butchers represented sharpening their
knives on a round bar of metal attached to their
apron ; and the blue colour of the blades and the
distinction maintained between the bronze and steel
weapons in the tomb of Remeses III., one being
painted red and the other blue, leave little doubt
that the Egyptians of an early Pharaonic age were
acquainted with the use of iron.
Many implements of husbandry, the plough, the
hoe, and the fork, were frequently of wood, as
simple in their form as in the materials of which
they were made ; the ploughshare was probably
sometimes sheathed with, or the blade of a hoe
formed of, metal ; but it is uncertain whether iron
was employed for this purpose, or if, like the tools
of earlier days mentioned by Hesiod t, they were
confined to bronze.
Several wooden hoes have been found in Egypt,
and are now preserved in the museums of Europe :
the blades and handles are simply inserted the one
into the other, and bound together in the middle
with a twisted rope ; and their general appearance,
according exactly with those represented in the
agricultural scenes of the tombs, shows them to
* Herodot. Hi, 23.
f Hesiod, Oper. et Dies. v. 151. " Men tilled the ground with
bronze, iron not being as yet known."
R 4
248
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
have been the kind most commonly used*, even
to the latest times.
No. 377.
Wooden hoes.
Berlin Museum.
It is true that the Berlin Museum has the head of
a small hoe, of iron, but of what date is uncertain ;
and no inference can be drawn from it, especially
as its form differs essentially from those of the
paintings.
I have already stated that the speedy decom-
position of iron would be sufficient to prevent our
finding implements of that metal of an early period,
and that the greater opportunities of obtaining
copper ore, added to the facility of working it, were
a reason for preferring the latter whenever it
answered the purpose instead of iron. I shall pre-
sently endeavour to show how bronze tools might
be made available for sculpturing and engraving
* Vide wood-cut, No. 93. Vol. II. p. 99.
CHAP. IX. OF SCULPTURING GRANITE. 249
stone ; though there is great difficulty in accounting
for their use in mines and quarries, where the stone
was frequently hewn with tliem ; as Agatharcides *
informs us in his account of the gold mines, and
as I have reason to believe was done in cuttino-
the limestone rock of the tombs at Thebes ; having
found a bronze chisel amidst the cliippings of the
stone, where it had been accidentally left by the
workmen.
The hieroglyphics on obelisks and other granitic
monuments are sculptured with a minuteness and
finish which, even if they used steel as higlily
tempered as our own, cannot fail to surprise the
beholder, and to elicit from him the confession that
our modern sculptors are unable to vie with them
in this branch of art.
Some are cut to the depth of more than two
inches, the edges and all the most minute parts of
the intaglio presenting the same sharpness and ac-
curacy; and I have seen the figure of a king in higli
relief, reposing on the lid of a granite coffin, which
was raised to the height of nine inches above the
level of the surface. What can be said, if we
deny to men who executed such works as these
the aid of steel, and confine them to bronze im-
plements? Then, indeed, we exalt their skill in
metallurgy far beyond our own, and indirectly con-
fess that they had devised a method of sculpturing
stone of which we are ignorant. In vain should we
attempt to render copper, by the addition of certain
* He says Xorojutc^fg x"^'>^'''> " wedges of bronze arc found," ami
infers that the} were not then acquainted with iron.
250 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
alloys, sufficiently hard to sculpture granite, basalt,
and stones of similar quality. No one who has tried
to perforate or cut a block of Egyptian granite will
scruple to acknowledge that our best steel tools are
turned in a very short time *, and require to be
retempered : and the labour experienced by the
French engineers, who removed the obelisk of
Luxor from Thebes, in cutting a space less than
two feet deep, along the face of its partially
decomposed pedestal, suffices to show that, even
with our excellent modern implements, we find
considerable difficulty in doing what to the Egyp-
tians would have been one of the least arduous
tasks.
Some have imagined that the granite being
somewhat softer, at the time it is taken from the
quarry, was more easily sculptured when the Egj^jt-
ians put up the obelisks than at present, and thus
satisfy themselves that the labour was consider-
ably less; but this argument is entirely overthrown
by the fact of other sculptures having been fre-
* I am indebted to Sir R. Westmacott for the following observations
on this subject: — " Granite, as most hard materials of that nature, being
generally worked with a pick of various strength, until reduced to a
surface,*the duration of the tool depends on its form ; the more obtuse
the longer it will work, remaining longer cold. In jumping (as it is
termed) holes for the admission of bolts into fractured parts of granite,
the tools are usually of strong tempered iron, about three quarters of
an inch in diameter, which resist the heat sometimes half an hour,
seldom longer. One man holds, and turns, or moves the tool, w hilst the
other strikes it with a heavy hammer, the hole being supplied with
water. Tools of less diameter are formed of steel, but these will not
resist more than 300 strokes, when the points fly, and requu-e to be
fresh battered. Sculptors generally use tools formed of blistered steel,
or of cast steel, the finer sort, highly tempered, by immersing them w hen
lieated to a proper degree, into cold water. Carpenters' tools again,
and saws, are of "the best cast steel, and are tempered in oil."
CHAP. IX. GRANITE CUT WITH BRONZE. 251
quently added, one hundred and one hundred and
fifty years after the erection of the monument, as
in the lateral lines of hieroglyphics on obelisks ;
which are sometimes found more deeply cut and
more beautifully executed than those previously
sculptured. Others have suggested that the stone
being stunned, as it is termed, in those places
where it was to be sculptured, yielded more readily
to the blow of the chisel ; but neither is this suffi-
cient to produce the effect proposed, nor an advan-
tage exclusively enjoyed by the ancient Egyptians.
Thus, then, we find that the facility they pos-
sessed of sculpturing granite is neither attributable
to any process for bruising the crystals, nor to its
softer state on coming from the quarry : we must
therefore account for it in the skill they had acquired,
and endeavour to discover the means they employed
with such wonderful success.
The hieroglyphics on the obelisks are rather
engraved than sculptured ; and, judging from the
minute manner in which they are executed, we
may suppose they adopted the same process as
engravers, and even in some instances employed
the wheel and drill. That they were acquainted
wdth the use of emery powder* is not at all im-
probable, since, being found in the islands of the
Archipelago, it was within their reach ; and if this
be admitted, we can account for the admirable
* It is probable that this powder was used in sawing granite, a pro-
cess not uncommonly resorted to by tiie Egyptians, and tlie presence
of oxyde of copper in the part where the rock was cut, which surprised
De Roziere ancf others, may thus be more readily accounted for.
252 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
finish and sharpness of the hieroglyphics on granitic
and basaltic monuments, and explain the reason of
their preferring tools of bronze to those of harder
and more compact steel : for it is evident the
powder enters more readily into the former, and its
action upon the stone is increased in proportion to
the quantity retained by the point of the chisel ;
whence we now prefer tools of soft iron to hard steel
for the same purpose.
As far as the sculpture or engraving of hierogly-
phics, this explanation might suffice for their pre-
ference of bronze implements; but when we find
tools used in quarries made of the same metal, we
are unable to account for it, and readily express
our surprise how they could render a bronze chisel
capable of liewing stone. We know of no means
of tempering copper, under any form or united with
any alloys, for such a purpose. The addition of
tin or other metals to harden it, if exceeding certain
proportions, renders it too brittle for use ; and that
such is not the case is evident from the chisel I
found at Thebes, which, though it contains an alloy
apparently of tin, is far from being brittle, and is
easily turned by striking it against the very stone
it was once used to cut. Had it depended on the
proportions of its alloys, it ought still to possess the
same power as formerly, and its point should act
in the same manner upon the stone ; for, what is
very remarkable, the summit was turned over by
the blows it had received from the mallet, while the
point was intact, as if it had recently left the hands
of the smith who made it.
CHAP. IX. ANCIENT BRONZE. 253
What, then, gave it the power of cutting the
stone, and of resisting in this manner ? for unless
some medium was employed, as a sheath of steel or
other protection to its point, we must confess that
the Egyptians appear to have possessed certain
secrets in hardening or tempering bronze, with
which we are totally unacquainted. The size of
this chisel is 9i inches in length ; its diameter at the
summit is 1 inch, and the point is i oths of an inch
in its greatest width : its weight is lib. ISozs., and
in general form it resembles those now used by the
masons of modern Europe.
The skill of the Egyptians in compounding
metals is abundantly proved by the vases, mirrors,
arms, and implements of bronze, discovered at
Thebes, and other parts of Egypt ; and the nu-
merous methods* they adopted for varying the
composition of bronze, by a judicious admixture of
alloys t, are shown in the many qualities of the
metal. They had even the secret of giving to bronze
or brass t blades a certain degree of elasticity ; as
may be seen in the dagger of the Berlin Museum
already noticed §, which probably depended on the
mode of hammering the metal, and the just pro-
portions of peculiar alloys.
Another remarkable feature in their bronze is the
* Greek bronzes of the earliest and latest times have all the same
proportion of alloy. A little silver sometimes occurs, but this is sup-
posed to have entered accidentally with the tin.
f In almost all the bronzes hitherto analysed, the proportion is about
twelve parts of tin in a hundred.
:{: There is no direct proof of brass being known to the ancients, and
no analysis has yet shown the presence of zinc. I have a ring apparently
of brass, but it is possible that gold is there used instead of zinc.
§ In Vol. I. p. 320.
254} THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
resistance it offers to the effect of the atmosphere ;
some continuing smooth and bright, though buried
for ages, and since exposed to the damp of European
chmates, and some presenting the appearance of
previous oxidation purposely induced.*
It is not known at what period they began to
cast statues and other objects in bronze, or if the
use of beaten copper long preceded the art of
casting in that metal. No light is thrown on this
point by the paintings of Beni Hassan, and Thebes,
or by the tombs in the vicinity of the pyramids,
which, from their early date, would be an authority
highly satisfactory and important. It is, indeed,
singular that at no period do we find any represent-
ation, among the many subjects connected with the
trades, arts, and occupations of the Egyptians,
which relate to this process ; even in tombs or on
monuments made at a time when we know, from
positive evidence, that they were acquainted with
it : — another convincing proof that no argument
against the existence of a custom ought to be de-
rived from the circumstance of its not being indi-
cated on the monuments.
Many bronze statues have been found, evidently,
from their style, of a very early period ; but in the
absence of a king's name, it is impossible to fix
their exact date, though I feel persuaded that the
art of casting metal was known before the com-
mencement of the 18th dynasty, and it is probable
* I suppose the metal was then coated with some substance which
filled the pores. This is done at the present day.
CHAP. IX. CASTING OF METALS. 9,55
that many specimens exist of the age of Osirtasen
and Thothmes.
Pausanias*, in speaking of the art of casting
metal, observes that the people of Pheneum in
Arcadia, pretended that Ulysses dedicated a statue
of bronze to Neptune Hippius, in order that
he might recover the horses he had lost, through
the intervention of the Deity ; '* and indeed," he
adds, *' they showed me an inscription on the
pedestal of the statue offering a reward to any
person who should find and take care of the
animals ; but I do not give credit to the whole
of their statement, and no one can persuade
me that Ulysses erected a bronze statue to Nep-
tune. The art of fusing metal and casting it in
a mould was not yet known ; a statue was made
in those times like a dress, successively, and in
pieces, not at one time, or in a single mass, as I
have already shown t in speaking of the statue of
Jupiter, surnamed the Most High. In fact, the
first who cast statues were Rhoecus the son of
Philaeus, and Theodorust the son of Telecles,
both natives of Samos ; the latter the same who
engraved § the beautiful emerald in the ring of
Polycrates."
The Samians were noted at an early period for
their skill in this branch of art ; and before the found-
ation of Cyrene, or b.c. 630., they made a bronze
* Pans. Grec. lib. A'iii. c. 14-. Arcad.
\ Lib. iii.
j Pliny (vii. 56.) says " Theodorus invented the rule, the level, the
turner's instrument, and the key,"
§ Ilerodot. iii. 41. Plin. xxxvii. 1.
256 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
vase, ornamented with griffins, supported on three
colossal figures of the same metal, for the temple of
Juno.* The art was also know^n at a very remote
period in Italy. Among the Etruscans bronze sta-
tues were common before the foundation of Rome;
and Romulus is said to have placed a statue of
himself, crowned by Victory, in a four-horsed car
of bronze, which had been captured at the taking
of Camerium.t
Pliny attributes the discovery of gold and the
secret of smelting it to Cadmus t, who is supposed
to have gone to Greece 1493 years before our era ;
but this, like most of the inventions mentioned by
him, was long before known to the Egyptians ; and
we may apply the same remark to the supposed dis-
covery of Rhoecus and Theodorus.
It is uncertain whether the Egyptians possessed
the art of damaskeening or inlaying iron with gold,
since, owing to the speedy decomposition of that
metal, nothing made of iron has been preserved of
a remote era ; but we may conclude, from their
inlaying bronze in this manner, that it was not un-
kno\^^l to them.
Some have supposed that Glaucus of Chios was
the inventor of this art, and that the stand of liis
silver vase presented to the temple of Delphi by
Alyattes king of Lydia, which, according to Hero-
dotus §, was the most beautiful of all the offerings
there, was made of iron inlaid witli gold. But tlie
* Herodot. iv. 152.
f Dionys. Hal. Ant. Rom. 1. ii. Pint, in Rom.
X Plin."vii. 56. § Herod, i. 25.
CH.IX. DAMASKEENING, AND SOLDERING METALS. 257
description given of it by Pausanias * will not sanction
this opinion, as he expressly states " it consisted of
several plates of iron, adjusted one over the other
in the form of steps, the last, that is, those of the
summit, curving a little outwards. It had the form
of a tower, large at the base and decreasing upwards,
and the pieces of which it was composed were not
fastened either with nails or pins, but simply sol-
dered together."
The Greeks, however, were not ignorant of
damaskeening, and though the stand of Alyattes'
vase was not so inlaid, it is certain they possessed
the art, and ornamented goblets and other objects
in that manner. The process was very simple :
the iron was carved with various devices, and the
narrow lines thus hollowed out were filled with
gold, or with silver, which in some instances were
probably soldered, and in others simply beaten
in with the hammer, the surface being afterwards
filed and polished.
The term damaskeening, though generally con-
fined to iron or steel so inlaid (owing to its having
been borrowed from the specimens of this work in
the modern sword blades of Damascus), may with
equal propriety be extended to any metal ; and nu-
merous instances of bronze inlaid with gold and silver
occur in statues, scarabaei, and various ornamental
objects discovered at Thebes and other places. Hard
stones were also engraved in the same manner, and
the intaglio filled with gold or silver beaten into it ;
* Paus. lib. X. 16. Phoc.
VOL. III. S
258
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. IX.
a process commonly adopted at the present day
by the Turks, and other Eastern people in their
hookahs or Jidrgilehs, and in the stone ornaments
of their amber mouth-pieces ; but at what time this
was first done it is needless to conjecture.
The art of soldering metals had long been prac-
tised in Egypt before the time of Glaucus ; and it
is curious to find gold and bronze vases, made
apparently in the same manner as the stand of that
mentioned by Pausanias, represented at Thebes in
sculptures executed during the reign of the third
Thothmes, 1490 years before our era, and con-
sequently many centuries previous to the Chian
artist. They are shown to have been composed of
plates of metal, imbricated, or overlapping each
other, as Pausanias describes, and sometimes
bound at intervals with bands of metal. Instances
occur in the same sculptures of gold vases with
f^^
'So. SiS. Vases of the time of Thothmes III., imbricated, or ornamcntcit with plates
if metal. T/ubes.
CHAP. IX. STONE POINTS TO ARROWS. 259
stands formed of similar plates ; which are interest-
ing also from the elegance of their forms.
In coarser work, or in those parts which were
out of sight, the Egyptians soldered with lead, but
we are ignorant of the time when it was first used
for that purpose, though it could only have been
after the discovery of tin; for, as Pliny* justly
observes, " lead can only be united by the addition
of tin, nor is this last efficient without the applica-
tion of oil." t The oldest specimen of metal soldered
with lead, with which I am acquainted, is the sis-
trum of Mr. Burton : its date, however, is uncer-
tain ; and though, from the style of the figures en-
graved upon it, we may venture to ascribe it to a
Pharaonic age, the exact period when it was made
cannot be fixed.
In early ages, before men had acquired the
art of smelting ore, and of making arms and imple-
ments of metal, stones of various kinds were used,
and the chasseur was contented with the pointed
flint with which nature had provided him. The
only effort of his ingenuity was to fix it in some
kind of handle, or at the extremity of a reed, in
order to make the knife, or the arrow ; and we
still witness the skill which some savage people
of the present day display in constructing those
rude weapons.
The Egyptians, at a remote period, before
civilisation dawned upon them, probably adopted
the same ; since we find that stone-tipped arrows
* Plin. xxxiv. 16.
-|- Or resin, which we now use.
s 2
^260 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
continued to be occasionally used for hunting,
even after they had improved every species of
weapon, and after the arts had arrived at the state
of perfection in which they appear subsequently to
the accession of the 18th dynasty. Long habit
had reconciled them to the original reed shaft,
with its head of flint, and even to arrows made
with a point of hard wood inserted into them,
which were also the remnant of a primaeval cus-
tom.
Those, however, who preferred them of a stronger
kind, adopted arrows of wood tipped with bronze
heads ; and these were considered more serviceable,
and were almost invariably used in war. But when
this improvement took place in the construction of
their arms it is impossible to conjecture, being
coeval with the early stages of a civilisation, which
is concealed by the veil of ages, and dates long be-
fore the period of which any monuments remain.
It is, indeed, a remarkable fact that the first
glimpse we obtain of the history and manners of
the Egyptians shows us a nation already advanced
in all the arts of civilised life, and the same
customs and inventions that prevailed in the Au-
gustan era of that people, after the accession of the
18th dynasty, are found in the remote age of Osir-
tasen, the contemporary of Joseph ; nor can there
be any doubt that they were in the same civilised
state when Abraham visited the country.
I have observed that the fact of private citizens
going unarmed, and of the soldier laying aside his
sword and otlier weapons when not on service, may
CHAP. IX. STONE KNIVES. 26l
be considered a strong proof of refinement, and of
their advancement in the habits of social Hfe. The
same custom was ah'eady adopted at the time to
which I allude ; and many circumstances unite in
proclaiming the civiHsation of Egypt, at least as
early as the 18th century before our era. How far
does this throw us back into the infancy of the
world ! at least, of the world peopled by the des-
cendants of Noah — and, when we recollect that
the pyramids of Memphis were erected within three
hundred years after the era assigned to the deluge ;
and that the tombs of Beni Hassan were hewn and
painted with subjects describing the arts and man-
ners of a highly civilised people, about six hundred
years after that event j it may occur that the dis-
tance between the deluge and the construction of
those pyramids and tombs is not greater than from
the present day to the reign of our own Elizabeth,
and Henry III.
The same prejudice in favour of an ancient
and primitive custom retained the use of stone
knives for certain purposes connected with rehgion
among the Egyptians ; and Herodotus tells us it
was usual to make an incision in the body of the
deceased, when brought to be embalmed, with an
Ethiopic stone.* This name, though very indefinite,
seems here, as in all instances where the stone
is said to be applied to a similar purpose, to sig-
nify flint; and this conjecture is not only con-
firmed by probabiUty, and by the frequent use of
it by many people as a cutting instrument, but by
* Herodot. ii, 8G.
s 3
262 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. IX.
the fact of our finding several knives of that stone
in the tombs of Thebes. In other cases, the Ethio-
pic stone, mentioned by Herodotus, is evidently
granite, so called from being common in Ethiopia ;
and it is possible that the flint received that name
from its black colour.
The knives found in the excavations and tombs,
many of which are preserved in our European mu-
seums, are generally of two kinds ; one broad and
flat like the blade of a knife, the other narrow and
pointed at the summit, several of which are pre-
served in the Berlin museum. These last * are
supposed to have been used for making the incision
in the side of the body, for the purpose of re-
moving the intestines, preparatory to the embalming
process already mentioned ; and, considering how
strongly men's minds are prepossessed in favour of
early habits connected with religion, and how scru-
pulous the Egyptians were, above all people, in
permitting the introduction of new customs in
matters relating to the gods, we are not surprised
that they should have retained the use of these
primitive instruments in a ceremony of so sacred
a nature as the embalming of the dead.
Flint knives. Berlin Mii.tcinn.
* Vide wood-cut 379. fiij. 1.
Vignette I Tomb at Saqqara, arched with stone, of the time of Psamaticiis II. wliox;
name occurs on the roof to the left, and other places.
CHAP. X.
Style of Art among the Egyptians. — Names of early Kings :
Cheops, or Sujjhis, and others. — Some of the Subjects of the
Sculptures in the Temples. — Colours. — Relief and Intaglio.
— Painting. — Brick Pyramids. — The Arch. — Quarries. —
Large Blocks of Stone moved. — Bellows, Siphons, Inventions.
— Dresses. — Wigs. — Women's Dresses and Jeivellery. —
Eyes painted. — Baths. — Medical Men. — Exvotos.
STYLE OF ART AMONG THE EGYPTIANS.
The same veneration for ancient usage and the
stern regulations of the priesthood, which forbade
s 4
^64f THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
any innovation in the form of the human figure,
particularly in subjects connected with religion,
fettered the genius of the Egyptian artists, and
prevented its developement. The same formal
outline, the same attitudes and postures of the
body, the same conventional mode of representing
the different parts were adhered to, at the latest as at
the earliest periods; no improvements, resultingfrom
experience and observation, were admitted in the
mode of drawing the figure, no attempt was made
to copy nature, or to give proper action to the limbs.
Certain rules, certain models, had been established
by law, and the faulty conceptions of early times
were copied and perpetuated by every successive
artist. For, as Pluto and Synesius inform us,
sculptors were not suffered to attempt any thing
contrary to the regulations laid down regarding
the figures of the gods ; they were forbidden to
introduce any change, or to invent new subjects
and habits; and thus the art, and the rules which
bound it, always remained the same.
Egyptian bas-relief appears to have been, in its
origin, a mere copy of painting, its predecessor.
The first attempt to represent the figures of gods,
sacred emblems, and other subjects, consisted in
painting simple outlines of them on a flat surface,
the details being afterwards put in with colour ;
but in process of time these forms were traced
on stone with a tool, and the intermediate space
between the various figures being afterwards
cut away, the once level surface assumed the ap-
pearance of a bas-relief. It was, in fact, a pic-
CHAP. X. STYLE OF ART. ^65
torial representation on stone, which is evidently
the character of all the bas-reliefs on Egyptian
monuments ; and which readily accounts for the
imperfect arrangement of their figures.
Deficient in conception, and above all in a proper
knowledge of grouping, they were unable to form
those combinations which give true expression ;
every picture was made up of isolated parts, put
together according to some general notions, but
without harmony, or preconceived effect. The
human face, the whole body, and every thing
they introduced, were composed in the same man-
ner, of separate members placed together one by
one, according to their relative situations : the eye,
the nose, and other features composed a face ; but
the expression of feelings and passions was entirely
wanting; and the countenance of the king, whether
charging an enemy's phalanx in the heat of battle,
or peaceably offering incense in a sombre temple,
presented the same outline and the same inanimate
look. The peculiarity of the front view of an eye,
introduced in a profile, is thus accounted for : it
was the ordinary representation of that feature
added to a profile, and no allowance was made for
any change in the position of the head.
It was the same with drapery : the figure was first
drawn, and the drapery then added, not as part of
the whole, but as an accessory ; they had no general
conception, no previous idea of the effect required
to distinguish the warrior or the priest, beyond the
impressions received from costume, or from the
subject of which they formed a partj and the
266 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
same figure was dressed according to the character
it was intended to perform. Every portion of a
picture was conceived by itself, and inserted as it
was wanted to complete the scene ; and when the
walls of the building, where a subject was to be
drawn, had been accurately ruled with squares,
the figures were introduced, and fitted to this
mechanical arrangement. The members were ap-
pended to the body, and these squares regulated
their form and distribution, in whatever posture
they might be placed.
Thus then, as Diodorus observes * of Egyptian
statues, various portions of the same figure might
be made by several artists in different places, the
style and attitude having been previously agreed
upon, which when brought together, would neces-
sarily agree, and form a complete whole.
As long as this conventional system continued,
no great change could take place, beyond a slight
variation in the proportions, which at one period
became more elongated, particularly in the reign of
the second Remeses ; but still the general form
and character of the figures continued the same,
which led to the remark of Plato, " that the
pictures and statues made ten thousand years ago
are in no one particular better or worsethan what they
now make." t And that they were still bound by the
same regulations, which prohibited all change in
these matters, even to the latest times, is evident
* Diod. i. 98. This, I believe, never to have been done by the
Egyptians, because their statues were all of one piece. He mentions a
Greek statue of Apollo of Sanios, made in two pieces, by Telecles and
Theodorus, at Samos and Ephesus.
f Plato, 2d Book of Laws.
CHAP. X. BAS-RELIEF AND PAINTING. 267
from the sculptures of the monuments erected
when Egypt had long been a Roman province.
All was still Egyptian, though of a bad style ;
and if they then attempted to finish the details
with more precision, it was only substituting orna-
ment for simplicity ; and this love of minuteness
plainly indicated a deficiency of taste, the natural
consequence of the decadence of art.
In the composition of modern paintings three
objects are required, one main action : one point of
view : and one instant of time : and the proportions
and harmony of the parts are regulated by perspec-
tive ; but in Egyptian sculpture these essentials
were disregarded : every thing was sacrificed to
the principal figure ; its colossal dimensions pohited
it out as a centre to which all the rest was a mere
accessory ; and, if any other was made equally con-
spicuous, or of equal size, it was still in a subordi-
nate station^ and only intended to illustrate the
scene connected with the hero of the piece.
In the paintings of the tombs greater licence
was allowed in the representation of subjects
relating to private life, the trades, or the manners
and occupations of the people; and some indication
of perspective in the position of the figures may
occasionally be observed : but the attempt was
imperfect, and, probably, to an Egyptian eye,
unpleasing j for such is the force of habit, that
even where nature is copied, a conventional style
is sometimes preferred to a more accurate repre-
sentation.
In the battle scenes on the temples of Thebes,
268 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
some of the figures representing the monarch
pursuing the flying enemy, despatching a hostile
chief with his sword, and drawing his bow, as
his horses carry his car over the prostrate bodies
of the slain, are drawn with much spirit, and the
position of the arms gives a perfect idea of the
action which the artist intended to portray; still,
the same imperfections of style, and want of truth
are observed ; there is action, but no sentiment, ex-
pression of the passions, or life in the features ; it
is a figure ready formed, and mechanically varied
into movement ; and whatever position it is made
to assume, the point of view is the same : the same
profile of the human body with the anomaly of the
shoulders seen in front, and attached as a separate
though component part of the whole figure.
Limited to such a conventional mode of drawing,
it was in vain for the Egyptian artists to aspire to
that degree of excellence attained by the Greeks,
unfettered by prejudice, and allowed to imitate the
beauties of nature ; much less could they arrive at
that degree of feeling which formed taste, and
called forth the poetry of the mind : their imagin-
ative powers were checked ; they were forced to
remain contented with the models already before
them ; and no new conceptions were elicited, or
required.
In the representation of animals, they appear
not to have been restricted to the same rigid
style ; but genius once cramped can scarcely be ex-
pected to make any great effort to rise, or to suc-
ceed in the attempt ; and the same union of parts
CHAP. X. FIGURES OF ANIMALS. 269
into a whole, the same preference for profile are
observable in these as in the human figure. Seldom
did they attempt to draw the face in front, either
of men or animals ; and when this was done, it fell
far short of the profile, and was composed of the
same juxtaposition of parts. It must, however, be
allowed, that in general the character and form
of animals, were admirably portrayed ; the parts
were put together with greater truth ; and the same
licence was not resorted to as in the shoulders
and other portions of the human body. Nor will
I deny that great life and animation are given to
the antelope, and many wild beasts, in the hunting
scenes of the Theban tombs, or refuse my assent to
the observation of Madame de Stael*, " Les sculp-
teurs Egyptiens saisissaient avec bien plus de genie
la figure des animaux que celle des hommes."
The mode of representing men and animals in
profile is primitive, and characteristic of the com-
mencement of art : the first attempts made by an
uncivilised people are confined to it ; and until
the genius of artists bursts forth, this style continues
to hold its ground. From its simplicity it is
readily understood j the most inexperienced per-
ceive the object intended to be represented; and
no effort is required to comprehend it. Hence it
is that, though few combinations can be made under
such restrictions, those few are perfectly intelligible,
the eye being aware of the resemblance to the simple
exterior ; and the modern uninstructed peasant of
* Corinne, vol.i. p. 127.
270 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
Egypt who is immediately struck with and under-
stands the paintings of the Theban tombs, if shown
an European drawing, is seldom able to distinguish
men from animals ; and no argument will induce
him to tolerate foreshortening, the omission of
those parts of the body concealed from his view
by the perspective of the picture, or the intro-
duction of shadows, particularly on the human
flesh.
Bas relief may be considered the earliest style of
sculpture. It originated in those pictorial repre-
sentations, which were the primeval records of
a people anxious to commemorate their victories,
the accession or the virtues of a king, and other
events connected with their history. These were
the first purposes to which the imitative powers
of the mind were applied ; but the progress was
slow, and the infant art (if it may be so called)
passed through several stages, ere it had the power
of portraying real occurrences, and imitating
living scenes. The rude drawing of a spear, a
sword, a bow, or other weapon, supplied at first the
place of the action itself, of which it was a species of
hieroglyphic ; but in process of time, the outlines of
a warrior and a prostrate foe were attempted, and
the valour of the prince who had led them to vic-
tory was recorded by this simple group.
As their skill increased, the mere allegorical re-
presentation was extended to that of a descriptive
kind, and some resemblance of the hero's person was
attempted ; his car, the army he commanded, and
the flying enemies, were introduced; and what was
CHAP. X. ORIGIN OF SCULPTURE. Syi
at first scarcely more than a symbol, assumed the
more exalted form and character of a picture. Of a
similar nature were all their historical records, and
these pictorial illustrations were a substitute for
written documents. Sculpture, indeed, long pre-
ceded letters, and we find that even in Greece, to
describe, draw, engrave, and write, were expressed
by the same word, y^atpeiv.
The want of letters, and the inability to describe
an individual, his occupations, or his glorious
actions, led them in early ages to bury with the
body some object which might indicate the cha-
racter of the deceased. Thus, warriors were inter-
red with their arms*; artisans with the implements
they had used ; the oar was placed over the sailor ;
and paterae, and other utensils connected with his
office, or the emblems of the deity in whose service
he had been employed, were deposited in the
sepulchre of a priest. In those times we find no
inscription mentioned ; a simple mound was raised
over a chief, sometimes with a a-ru'Kos or rough stone
pillar, placed upon it, but no writing: and when, at a
later period, any allusion to the occupations of
the deceased was attempted, a rude allegorical
emblem, of the same nature as the early historical
records before alluded to, was engraved on the
levelled surface of the stone.
Poetry and songs also supplied the want of
writing, to record the details of events ; and tra-
dition handed down the glorious achievements of a
• Virgil Mn.v'i. 233., at the tomb of Miseniis :
" Suaque anna viro, rcnnimque, tiibaiiiquc."
272 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
conqueror, and the history of past years, with the
precision and enthusiasm of national pride. The
poetry was recited to the sound of music, w^hence
the same expression often implied the ode and the
song ; and as laws were recorded in a similar man-
ner, the word vofjiog signified, as Aristotle observes,
both a law and a song.
Sculpture dates long before architecture. A
simple hut, or a rude house, answer every purpose
as a place of abode, and a long time elapses before
man seeks to invent what is not demanded by
necessity.
Architecture is a creation of the mind: it has
no model in nature, and it requires great ima-
ginative powers to conceive its ideal beauties ; to
make a proper combination of parts ; and to judge
of the harmony of forms altogether new, and be-
yond the reach of experience. But the desire in
man to imitate, and to record what has passed before
his eyes, in short, to transfer the impression from his
own mind to another, is natural in every stage of
society : and however imperfectly he may succeed
in representing the objects themselves, his attempts
to indicate their relative position, and to embody
the expression of his own ideas, are a source of the
highest satisfaction.
As the wish to record events gave the first, re-
ligion gave the second impulse to sculpture. The
simple pillar of wood or stone*, which was originally
* Lucan mentioning the statues of the gods of Massilia, says,
" Simulacra mista deorum
Arte carent, coecisque extant inforniia truncis."
And Tacitus describes those of the Germans as " e stipitibus et impo-
lito robore." De Mor. Germ.
CHAP. X. EARLY STATUES. 273
chosen to represent the deity, afterwards assumed
the human form, the noblest image of the power
that created it ; and the memorial of the primitiv^e
substitute for a statue is curiously preserved in the
Greek name «<wv, implying a column and an idol.
Pausanias * thinks that " all statues were in an»
cient times of wood, particularly those made in
Egypt ;" but this must have been at a period so
remote as to be far beyond the known history of
that country ; though it is probable that when the
arts were in their infancy, the Egyptians were con-
fined to statues of that kind ; and they occasionally
erected wooden figures in their temples, even till
the times of the latter Pharaohs.
Long after men had attempted to make out the
parts of the figure, statues continued to be very
rude ; the arms were placed directly down the side
to the thighs, and the legs were united together ;
nor did they pass beyond this imperfect state in
Greece, until the age of Daedalus. The Egyptians,
at the latest periods, continued to follow the im-
perfect models of their early artists, and grace and
feeling were for ever prevented from forming a
feature of their sculpture : and though they made
great progress in other branches of art, though
they evinced considerable taste in the forms of
their vases, their furniture, and even in some archi-
tectural details, they were for ever deficient in the
combination of ideal beauty with the natural po-
sition of parts in the human figure.
One great impediment to the advancement of the
* Pausanias, lib. ii. c. xix.
VOL. III. T
274 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
statuary's art in Egypt, was the unvarying posture of
the figures, which were always in a state of repose,
or in a position that only required the limbs to be
straight, without any attempt at action, or, indeed,
any indication of life : they were really statues of
the person they represented, not the person ** living
in marble," in which they differed entirely from
those of Greece. No statue of a warrior was sculp-
tured in the varied attitudes of attack and defence,
no wrestlers, no discobolus, no pugilist exhibited
the grace, the vigour, or the muscular action of a
man ; nor were the beauties, the feeling, and the
elegance of female forms displayed in stone : all
was made to conform to the same invariable model,
which confined the human figure to a few conven-
tional postures.
A sitting statue, whether of a man or woman,
was represented with the hands placed upon the
knees, or held across the breast ; a kneehng
figure sometimes supported a small shrine or sacred
emblem ; and when standing, the arms were placed
directly down the sides to the thighs, one foot
being advanced beyond the other, as if in the
attitude of walking, but without any attempt to se-
parate the legs.
*' The feet," says Winkelmann*, '* of the Egyp.
tian differ from those of the Greek statues, in being
more flat and broad, and in having the toes per-
fectly straight, with the joints as little indicated as
in tlie fingers, and a gradual diminution in their
length ; nor is the little toe curved or bent under,
* Winkelmann,!. p. 110,
CHAP. X. NO CHANGES PERMITTED. 275
as in those of the Greeks." This last remark
is just, and their mode of representing it accords
with what they saw in nature ; but the length of
the toes of an Egyptian foot do not undergo a
gradual diminution, the second being invariably
made longer than any other, which too agrees with
the natural form.
The reason of this uniformity I have already
explained ; and it is probable that, if their genius
had not been cramped by superstitious prejudice,
the Egyptians would have excelled in painting and
sculpture ; and the imitation of the human figure
have kept pace with their advancement in other
points.
No accidents, arising from the consequences
of invasion, or from any other cause, were ever
capable of changuig their fixed reverence for pre-
scribed forms ; nor do we find, after the Greek,
and Roman conquests, that any deviation from
established custom was tolerated ; or that any
innovation was introduced from communication
with those foreigners, however superior their art,
and however evident its resemblance to the originals
which nature daily presented to their eyes. After
the accession of the Ptolemies, Greek art became
well known in Egypt, and every opportunity was
given to their artists to improve from the best
models : but no change was effected by this inter-
course with the Greeks ; and when Adrian wished
divine honours to be paid to his favourite Antinoiis,
and statues to be erected to his memory, no form was
admitted but that which religious usage had esta-
blished, and Egyptian models prescribed.
T 2
'276 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
Though the general character of painting and
sculpture continued the same, and a certain conven-
tional mode of representing the human figure was
universally adopted throughout the country, which
was followed by every artist through successive ages,
from the earliest Pharaonic era until the religion of
Egypt was supplanted by the final establishment of
Christianity, it is reasonable to suppose that several
styles were introduced, and that the genius of
artists varied considerably during that lengthened
period. Plato's assertion is therefore to be taken
in a limited and general sense, signifying that the
Egyptians followed the same conventional forms,
and that no nearer approach to the beau ideal of
the human figure was made at one period than
another. This is perfectly true ; but every eye
accustomed to Egyptian drawing readily perceives
the difference between subjects executed during
the Augustan age of art, the reigns of Reraeses
the Great and his father Osirei, and those of a
Ptolemaic epoch. Truth may be wanting, as it
necessarily must be where nature is not copied ;
but there are a grace and a boldness in the outline,
as well as in the execution of the sculptures of the
former period, which at once indicate the work of
superior genius.
The liieroglyphics on the obelisks of that epoch
proclaim the same fact, and, in architecture, the
temples erected by the great Remeses, far surpass
in elegance and grandeur, in harmony of propor-
tion and simplicity of style, the monuments of any
previous or subsequent era. It cannot, however,
be denied that, in the time of Osirtasen and at
CHAP. X. OLDEST SCULPTURES. ^77
the commencement of the 18th dynasty, Egyptian
art flourished greatly, and monuments of that age,
also, claim our admiration for taste, simplicity, and
symmetry of details. And if some fanciful innov-
ations were introduced in the buildings of the third
Thothmes, they are attributable to momentary
caprice, and not to be looked upon as a change in
the architecture of that period. This I shall have
occasion to mention hereafter.
The paintings at Beni Hassan are certainly far
inferior to those of the age of Remeses, or of the
early part of the 18th dynasty ; but the style of
the hieroglyphics on some other monuments of
the Osirtasen epoch, as the obelisk of Heliopolis,
show that sculpture had greatly advanced at that
remote period : and if historical bas-reliefs had
been preserved, we might discover still more to
prove the skill of the artists of the same era.
Few paintings or sculptures remain of an age
prior to the accession of Osirtasen I., whom I sup-
pose to have been the contemporary of Joseph, and
to have ascended the throne about the year 1740.
The tombs in the vicinity of the pyramids, and
those I discovered hewn in the rock near Qasr
e'Syad, the ancient Chenoboscion, are certainly an-
terior to the grottoes of Beni Hassan ; and the style
of the masonry as well as the names of the kings
found there, show that the former were the places
of sepulture of individuals, who lived in the time
of Suphis, and his immediate successors. They,
therefore, date about the year 2090 and 2050,
B. c, upwards of a century before the arrival
T 3
^278
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
of Abraham in Egypt, if, as I suppose, the pa-
triarch came to that country during the reign of
Apappus.
It is evident that the tombs, built of stone, which
stand in the area before and behind the great
pyramid*, were erected after it had been com-
menced, if not completed, as their position is
made to conform to that momument ; and that
those hewn in the rock at the same place were not
of an older period, is shown by the style of the
sculptures, and the names of the same kings.
Among these we evidently perceive Suphis, or as
Ml
It
mi
ni
J^
623 456 78
a, the name of Shofo, or Suphis.
5, 6, the name of Memphis ; 7, S, (Memphis, or) Pthah-ei, the abode of Pthah.
No. 380. Frcnn the Tomhs near the Pyramids.
the hieroglyphics write it, Shofo, or Khof, a name
easily converted into Suphis or Cheops, by adding
.?, the Greek termination, t But it is difficult,
as I have already observed t, to refer them to their
proper epoch, or to fix their relative position in the
list of kings. Nor can we decide whether the two
first names here introduced, are both of Suphis,
or if the second is of the founder of the other
* It is remarkable that Memphis is styled the land of the pyramid.
Its Egyptian name in the hieroglyphics is Menofri, in Coptic Memfi,
Manfi, Membe, Panoufi, or Mefi, being probably corrupted from Ma-
n-nofri, " the abode of good," or as Plutarch calls it, " the haven of
good men." It was also called Pthah-ei', the abode of Pthah. Vide
wood-cut. No. 328., figs. 5, 6, 7, 8.
f As I have observed in Vol. I. p. 41. note 4.
i Vol. I. p. 19.
CHAP. X. SUPHIS AND OTHER KINGS. 2/9
pyramid, whose name xS'e/z-Suphis signifies the
brother of Suphis ; though they certainly appear to
be of different kings, who lived about the same
epoch.
They occur again at Mount Sinai, and the
former has the banner or square title, given in the
wood-cut *, which would satisfactorily decide this
question, if it should ever be found with the other
name. For these square banners, as I have already
shown in a former workt, relate to the kings and
not to the deities : and though the learned and in-
genious Champollion expressed a different opinion
in his " Precis," t he was afterwards convinced of
this fact, which is now universally admitted.
The other names in these tombs are of the same
remote period ; and though there is no positive
proof of their relative antiquity, we may conclude
they belonged to the immediate successors of Suphis
and his brother. It is remarkable that in some
* Vide wood-cut, No. 380. /g. 1. b.
t Materia Hierog. Extracts from Hieroglyphical Subjects, p. 7. : —
" One more remark I have to offer, which, I confess, is not at all con-
sonant with the ideas of Dr. Young and M. Champollion ; that the
square beneath the hawk, containing sometimes a bull and arm, some-
times other devices, does not refer to the god in whose honour the
monument was raised, but to the king, whose name always follows it ;
and to this I have been led by the following circumstance : — wherever
a king has erased the name of a predecessor, and inscribed his own in
its stead, the hieroglyphics in this square have also been erased and
changed : they cannot, therefore, refer to the god to whom the building
was erected ; otherwise the dedication, and other sculptures containing
his name would «/5o be altered throughout the same monument; we
should likewise find all the different names of kings in the same temple,
preceded by a square containing the same devices, as relating to the
deity of that temple, which is not the case." I have also shown (in
p. 8.) that the K{)aTi[w>^ AnoWwv is Phrah, or Pharaoh, the king in
the character of the sun. Fide Egypt and Thebes, p. 5.
|. Precis du Systcme Ilieroglyphiqne, p. 152.
T 4<
280
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
iriiz)iriEDirmDrty!r
d b
1 ^^
2fc--£ fTilTTl
u
ED
[uT*)
24
m
-5^
II
u
No. 381. Names of Ancient Kings.
Fig. 1, 2, at the tombs near the Pyramids. 3, at Saqqara and Mount Sinai. 4, at
E'Sioot. 5, 6, at Chenoboscion. a has been cut over rf. a, 6, c, seem to have reigned in
succession. 7, at Wady Maghara, near Mount .Sinai 8, 9, on the Kossayr road. The
characters b. b. in fig. 1. signify " priest."
CHAP. X. NAMES OF EARLY KINGS. 281
instances they are preceded by, and in others des-
titute of, regal titles, and sometimes they appear to
have the word 'priest' prefixed to them, like those
at Chenoboscion. Three of the names, however,
are so arranged, that we may suppose they indicate
the order in which the kings ruled, though the
arrangement is different in another part of the
same tomb, where the name of Suphis, or of Sen-
suphis, intervenes between two of them.*
At Saqqara other tombs of the same early
period occur, and some of the grottoes of E'Sioot
probably date long before the accession of Osir-
tasen. The former have a name, which, like most
of these, bears in its simplicity the character of great
antiquity, and in the latter is that of another an-
cient monarch ; but neither of themt can be traced
in the chamber of kings at Karnak.
The most interesting, after those at the pyramids,
are the names in the grottoes of Chenoboscion, not
only from their antiquity "which," as I have ob-
served t, *' may vie with that of any other catacomb
or monument in Egypt, if we except the pyramids
and the tombs in their vicinity," but from their
being placed in chronological order, and from the
circumstance of a king having erased one of them,
and introduced his own name in its stead.§ The
title applied to them is not 'king,' 'but priest,'
though the name is enclosed in an oval, the symbol
* Wood-cut, No. 38\.,Jig. 1. a and c, and Jig. 2., where b comes be-
tween a and c.
f Figs. 3 a and 4.
i Egypt and Thebes, p. 401, 402.
§ Fig. 5., a and c, and d cut over by a.
282
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
of royalty ; and that they really had the rank and
appellation of king is shown by the same names
occurring elsewhere with the usual royal prefix,
and even the square title.
The first* of these is the name to which I
alluded as having been erased to admit that of
another monarch : it reads Remai, or " the beloved
of the sun." The other is Papit, a name which
occurs in Egyptian history, being borne, according
to Manetho, by the father of the priest Amenophis
who lived in the time of the shepherds, t
Several tablets § and monumental records of king
Papi have been preserved ; and on the rocks of the
Kossayr road, his name occurs in the same in-
scription with that of Remai, who is elsewhere
shown to have reigned sixteen years. It is remark-
No 382 — Figures of kings wearing the crown of Upper and of Lower Egypt, with the
^ names Remai and Papi. Kossayr Road.
* Vide Wood-cut No. 381./g. 5 a.
+ Vide Wood-cut, No. 381./?. 5d.
i Joseph, contra Ap. i. 26. Vide Cory's valuable collection o( An-
cient Fragments," p. 176.
$ There is one in the British Museum.
CHAP. X. KINGS OF UPPER AND LOWER EGYPT. QS3
able, that the two princes appear seated on their
thrones in the hall of assembly, wearing, one the
crown of the upper, the other that of the lower
country * : showing either that they were contem-
porary sovereigns, one ruling at Thebes, and the
other at Memphis, or that Papi was the phonetic
nomen of Remai, and that they were the same
monarch.
The former is a point which has been long
contested in Egyptian history. Manetho evidently
alludes to contemporary dynasties, when he speaks
of the kings of the Thebaid and the rest of Egypt
uniting in a common cause against the shepherds t ;
and some chronologers have endeavoured to ac-
count for the long list of Egyptian kings, by
supposing that they ruled at the same time in differ-
ent parts of the country. This opinion was sug-
gested by the learned Sir John Marsham j but,
though correct, as far as it applies to the early epochs
of their history, there is sufficient evidence to prove
that from the time of Osirtasen, the sovereignty of
Upper and Lower Egypt continued to be vested in
one person, whether the royal residence was at
Thebes, Memphis, or Sais ; and even if Papi has
erased the name of his contemporary Remai, he
may only have reunited the two crowns, which had
been previously separated ; for that Menes was sole
monarch of all Egypt appears to have been univer-
sally allowed ; and the division of the kingdom was
* Vide wood-cut, No. 382. ; also wood-cut, No. 381., fgs. 5 and 8.
t Vide Cory, p. 171.
284 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
perhaps owing to the preference of his son Athothes
for the new capital founded by his father, which
caused the court to be transferred to Memphis.
In noticing these ancient names, it is necessary
to repeat a remark I liave previously had occasion to
make*, that the custom of affixing a prcenoynen to the
phonetic nomen was not introduced in early times,
and that Menes and many other kings had merely
one oval, containing their name, preceded by the
title 'king,' Mord of the world,' or other regal
prefix. Remai and Papi might therefore be differ-
ent kings, each with a single oval ; and, if they
really are the same person, we have probably here
the first instance of the introduction of a nomen ;
for there can be no doubt of the great antiquity of
these names, from the appearance of the grottoes
and monuments, where they occur, and the many
collateral facts connected with the succeeding
monarchs.
It may not be irrelevant to suggest that the hiero-
glyphics forming the name of Papi may also read
Apap, or Aphopht, the Apophis, or Apappus, of
Manetho and Eratosthenes. The era at which he
lived, about a century after the time of Suphis,
well accords with that of Pcipi ; and if this be ad-
mitted, we have evidence of the style of sculpture
at another fixed period, the arrival of Abraham in
Egypt.
Both the names of Papi and Remeren are found
in the chamber of kings at Karnak.
* Vide Mater. Hierogl. Extracts, p. 9.
-|- Aphoph is "a giant" in Coptic. It is translated " Maximiis."
Vide Vol. I. p. 28. 30.37.42.
CHAP. X. EARLY STATE OF ART. ^85
I have entered thus into detail upon the an-
tiquity of these kings, with a view to ascertain a
period, when the art of painting and sculpture
was in a less advanced state than under the kings
of the 18th dynasty. In the tombs near the
pyramids, and those of Chenoboscion, we find the
same agricultural and other scenes represented,
which usually occur in the sepulchral chambers of
the Theban necropolis, and this gives an oppor-
tunity of judging of tlie comparative state of art
at those two periods, which are separated by an
interval of from five to six hundred years. The
mode of treating those subjects is certainly very
inferior even to that of the Osirtasen era, parti-
cularly at Chenoboscion j but some allowance must
be made for sculptures executed by provincial
artists, who had not attained the excellence of
those of Thebes and Memphis. And the same
apology may be offered for he paintings of Beni
Hassan.
At the tombs of the pyramids we likewise ob-
serve an inferiority of style, compared with the
elegance and taste of the 18th dynasty; and the
epochs of Suphis, of Osirtasen, of the early part
of the 18th dynasty, and of Osirei and Remeses
the Great, may be looked upon as the four known
gradations, through which the arts passed from
mediocrity to excellence.
After the reign of Remeses the Great the arts
remained stationary ; the peaceful or inactive
reigns of his successors offered little encourage-
ment to sculpture, and few opportunities were
286 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
given to artists to improve, or even to exercise
their talents. The ambition, the warlike spirit,
or the indignation of the third Remeses, roused
by the rebellion of the conquered provinces of
Asia, which had been subdued and rendered tri-
butary by his victorious predecessor, once more
awakened the dormant genius of his country ; and,
as it frequently happens that great military events,
as well as internal convulsions, produce great de-
velopement of talent, we are not surprised that
the success which attended his arms should have
benefited the arts. The same remark applies,
and in a greater degree, to the glorious era of
Osirei and his son ; and at no period of Egyptian
history did the arms of the Pharaohs attain greater
celebrity, or the arts reach a higher degree of per-
fection than in the reign of the Great Remeses.
As soon as the third Remeses had returned from
his successful expedition into Asia, sculpture and
painting were called upon to commemorate the
triumphs he had gained, and to record the victories
of his country on the walls of the splendid edi-
fices of Thebes. The sculptures in the palace-
temple of Medeenet Haboo, erected by this mo-
narch, display a degree of spirit which is only
surpassed in those of his great namesake and pre-
decessor ; and so little do they fall short of the style
of that period, that few who have not entered into
the real feeling of Egyptian drawing, can observe
in what their inferiority consists.
In order that the reader may form some idea of
the nature of the subjects represented on the walls
CIJAP. X. SUBJECTS OF THE SCULPTURES. 287
of the Egyptian temples, and the profusion of
painted sculptures with which they were orna-
mented, I shall introduce a description of the
palace-temple of Remeses III. at Medeenet Haboo,
from my * Egypt and Thebes.' *
*' On the east, or north-east wall (of the inner
area), Remeses is borne in his shrine or ca-
nopy, seated on a throne, ornamented with the
figures of a lion and a sphinx, which is preceded
by a hawk.t Behind him stand two figures of
Truth t and Justice, with outspread wings. Twelve
Egyptian princes, sons of the king§, bear the
shrine ; officers || wave flabella around the mon-
arch ; and others, of the sacerdotal order, attend
on either side, carrying his arms and insignia. Four
others follow ; then six of the sons of the king, be-
hind whom are two scribes and eight attendants of
the military class, bearing stools and the steps of
the throne.
** In another line are members of the sacerdotal
order, four other of the king's sons, fan-bearers,
and military scribes ; a guard of soldiers bringing
up the rear of the procession. Before the shrine,
in one line, marcli six officers bearing sceptres
and other insignia ; in another, a scribe reads
aloud tlie contents of a scroll he holds unfolded in
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 61 . et seq.
f The emblem of the king as Phrah (Pharaoh).
j This refers to the double character- of this goddess, my authority
for whose name I have given in my Materia Ilierog. p. 45.
§ Tliey are always distinguished by a badge appended from their
head-dress, inclosing, probablv, the lock of hair, usually denoting son or
child.
\\ Probably the Ptcrophori.
288 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
his hand, preceded by two of the king's sons and
two disthiguished persons of the mihtary and
priestly orders. The rear of both these hnes is
closed by a pontiff*, who, turning round towards
the shrine, burns incense before the monarch ; and
a band of music, composed of the trumpet, drum,
double-pipe, and other instruments, with choristers,
forms tlie van of the procession.
The king, alighted from his throne, officiates as
priest before the statue of Amun Khem, or Amunre
generator ; and, still wearing his helmett, he pre-
sents libations and incense before the altar, which
is loaded with flowers, and other suitable offerings.
Tlie statue of the god, attended by officers bearing
flabellat, is carried on a palanquin, covered with
rich drapery, by twenty-two priests ; behind it fol-
low others, bringing the table and the altar of the
deity. Before the statue is the sacred bull, fol-
lowed by the king on foot, wearing the cap of the
" lower country." Apart from the procession itself
stands the queen, as a spectator of the ceremony ;
and before her, a scribe reads a scroll he has un-
folded. A priest turns round to offer incense to
the white bull ; and another, clapping his hands,
brings up the rear of a long procession of hieraphori,
carrying standards, images, and other sacred em-
blems ; and the foremost bear the statue of the
king's ancestors.
This part of the picture refers to the coronation
* Not the " eldest son of the king," as M, Champollion supposes.
-j- Vide Herodot. ii. 151.
j The larger of these are, in fact, umbrellas ; the smaller ones fans
or fly-flaps. Flabella of a similar kind are carried before the pope at
the present day-
CHAP. X. THE CEREMONY OF CORONATION. 289
of the king, who, in the hieroglyphics, is said to
have * put on the crown of the upper and lower
countries \ which the birds, flying to the four
sides of the world, are to announce to the gods of
the south, north, east, and west.* Such appears to
be the meaning of this ceremony t, rather than the
triumph of the king ; and the presence of Remeses,
wearing for the Jirst time the above mentioned
crown, and the great analogy between this and
part of the text of the Rosetta stone, fully justify
this opinion.
" In the next compartment, the president of the
assembly reads a long invocation, the contents of
which are contained in the hieroglyphic inscription
above ; and the six ears of corn t which the king,
once more wearing his helmet, has cut with a golden
sickle, are held out by a priest towards the deity.
The white bull and images of the king's ancestors
are deposited in his temple, in the presence of
Amun Khem, the queen still witnessing the cere-
mony, which is concluded by an offering of incense
and libation, made by Remeses to the statue of the
god.
" In the lower compartment, on this side of the
temple, is a procession of the arks of Amunre,
Maut, and Khonso (tlie Theban triad) which the
king, whose ark is also carried § before him, comes
* I am indebted for the construction of this part of it to M. Cham-
poUion's lettCA".
f I hope to have an opportunity, at some future period, of giving a
copy of this interesting subject, which the contracted dimensions of this
work prevent my doing.
{ A fit emblem for an agricultural people.
§ Conf. Rosetta stone.
VOL. III. U
290 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
to meet. In another part, the gods Abtaiit and Hat
pour alternate emblems of life and power over the
king ; and, on the south wall, he is introduced by
several divinities into the presence of the patron
deities of the temple.
" In the upper part of the west wall, Remeses
makes offerings to Pthah Sokari and to Kneph ; in
another compartment, he burns incense to the ark
of Sokari ; and, near this, is a tablet relating to the
offerings made to the same deity. The ark is then
borne by sixteen priests, with a pontiff and another
of the sacerdotal order in attendance.
" The king after wards joins in another procession,
formed by eight of his sons and four chiefs, behind
whom two priests turn round to offer incense to the
monarch. The hawk, the emblem of the king, or
of Horus, precedes them ; and eighteen priests
carry the sacred emblem of the god Nofri Atmoo,
which usually accompanies the ark of Sokari.
" On the south wall, marches a long procession
composed of hieraphori, bearing different standards,
thrones, arks, and insignia, with musicians who
precede the king and his attendants. The figure
of the deity is not introduced, perhaps intimating
that this forms part of the religious pomp of the
corresponding wall : and, from the circumstance of
the king here wearing the psiient, it is not impossible
it may also allude to his coronation.
" The commencement of the interesting histori-
cal subjects of Medeenet Haboo is in the south-west
corner of this court, on the inner face of the tower.
Here Remeses standing in his car, which his horses
CHAP. X. HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. 291
at full speed carry into the midst of the enemy's
ranks, discharges his arrows on their flying infantry.
The Egyptian chariots join in the pursuit ; and a
body of their allies assist* in slaughtering those who
oppose them, or bind them as captives. The right
hands of the slain are then cut off as trophies of
victory.
" The sculptures on the west wall are a continu-
ation of the scene. The Egyptian princes and gene-
rals conduct the ' captive chiefs' into the presence of
the king. He is seated at the back of his car, and
the spirited horses are held by his attendants on
foot. Large heaps of hands are placed before him,
which an officer counts, one by one, as the other
notes down their number on a scroll ; each heap
containing three thousand, and the total indicating
the returns of the enemy's slain. The number of
captives, reckoned 1000 in each line, is also men-
tioned in the hieroglyphics above, where the name
of the Rebo points out the nation against whom
this war was carried on. Their flowing dresses,
striped horizontally with blue or green bands on a
white ground, and their long hair and aquiline
nose, give them the character of an Eastern na-
tion in the vicinity of Assyria and Persia, as their
name reminds us of the Rhibii of Ptolemy, whom
he places near the Caspian, and the north bank of
the Oxus. ... A long hieroglyphic inscription is
placed over tlie king ; and a still longer tablet, oc-
• The same whom this monarch is represented as having vanquished
in another battle scene of this temple.
U 2
292 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
CLipying a great part of this wall, refers to the
exploits of the Egyptian conqueror, and bears the
date of his fifth year.
*' The suite of this historical subject continues on
the south wall. The king, returning victorious to
Egypt, proceeds slowly in his car*, conducting in
triumph the prisoners he has made, who walk be-
side and before it, three others being bound to the
axle. Two of his sons attend as fan-bearers, and
the several regiments of Egyptian infantry, with a
corps of their allies, under the command of three
other of these princes, marching in regular step,
and in the close array of disciplined troops ac-
company their king. He arrives at Thebes, and pre-
sents his captives to Amunre and Maut, the deities
of the city, who complhnent him as usual, on the
victory he has gained, and the overthrow of the
enemy he has ' trampled beneath his feet.'
" On the north wall the king presents offerings to
different gods, and below is an ornamental kind of
border ; composed of a procession of the king's
sons and daughters. Four of the former, his im-
mediate successors, bear the asp or basilisk, the
emblem of majesty, and have their kingly ovals
added to their names
*' If the sculptures of the area arrest the attention
of the antiquary, or excite the admiration of the
traveller, those of the exterior of this building are
no less interesting in an historical point of view,
and the north and east walls are covered with a pro-
fusion of the most varied and instructive subjects.
* Vide Plate I. Vol. I. p. 106.
CHAP. X. DEFEAT OF THE REBO. 293
*' At the north east extremity of the end wall a
trumpeter assembles the troops, who salute the
king as he passes in his car. In the first com-
partment on the east side, Remeses advances at a
slow pace in his chariot, attended by fan-bearers,
and preceded by his troops. A lion, running at
the side of the horses, reminds us of the account
given of Osymandyas, who was said to have been
accompanied in war by this animal : and another
instance of it is met with at E'Dayr, in Nubia,
among the sculptures of the second Remeses.
" Second compartment. — He continues his
march*, his troops leading the van, and a trumpeter
summons them to form for the attack.
" Third compartment. — The Rebo await the
Egyptian invaders in the open field ; the king presses
forward in his car, and drawing his bow, gives the
signal for the attack. Several regiments of Egyptian
archers, in close array, advance on different points and
harass them with showers of arrows. The chariots
rush to the charge ; and a body of Asiatic allies t
maintain the combat hand to hand, with the Rebo,
who are at length routed, and fly before their victori-
ous aggressors. Some thousands are left dead on the
field, whose tonguest and hands, being cut off, are
brought by the Egyptian soldiers as proofs of their
success. Three thousand five hundred and thirty-
* This evidently denotes the distance marched by the Egyptians
before they reached the enemy's countr}'.
\ They are the Sha ... a maritime people, whose features and high-
furred caps particularly denote their Asiatic origin ; and a large amulet,
suspended from their neck, reminds us of a custom very usual among
the nations of the east. Vide Vol. I. p. 287. wood-cut, No. \\.fg.2.
and p. 365. wood-cut. No. Q2.Jig. 3. a, b, and c.
X The Turks, at the present day, cut off the right ear.
u 3
29 i THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
five hands and tongues form part of the registered
returns ; and two other heaps, and a third of
tongues, containing each a somewhat larger number,
are deposited under the superintendence of the
chief officers, as trophies of victory. The monarch
then ahghts from his chariot, and distributes re-
w^ards to his troops.
*' In the next compartment, the king's mihtary
secretaries draw up an account of the number of
spears, bows, swords, and other arms taken from
the enemy, which are laid before them : and men-
tion seems to be made in the hieroglyphics of the
horses that have been captured.
" Remeses then proceeds in his car, having his
bow and sword in one hand, and his whip in the
other, indicating that his march still lies through
an enemy's country. The van of his army is com-
posed of a body of chariots ; the infantry in close
order, preceding the royal car, constitute the
centre ; and other similar corps form the flank and
rear.
" They are again summoned by sound of trumpet
to the attack of another Asiatic enemy* ; and, in
the next compartment, the Egyptian monarch gives
orders for the charge of the hostile army, which is
drawn up in the open plain. Assisted by their allies,
the Shairetana, a maritime people armed with round
bucklers and spears, they fall upon the undisciplined
* This people are called Fekkaros by M. ChampoUion. I am igno-
rant of the force of the first character, and of his reasons for adopting
the F. May they not be the Tochari ? — "a large tribe," according to
Ptolemy, on the north-east of Baclria, and at no great distance from
the Rhibii. If any of the sculptures of Thebes refer to the rebellion of
tne Bactrians, they are here.
CHAP. X. THE enemy's WAGONS. 295
troops of the enemy, who, after a short conflict are
routed, and retreat in great disorder. The women
endeavour to escape with their children on the first
approach of the Egyptians, and retire in plaustra*
drawn by oxen.t The flying chariots denote the
greatness of the general panic, and the conquerors
pursue them to the interior of the country. Here,
while passing a large morass, the king is attacked
by several lions t, one of which, transfixed with
darts and arrows, he lays breathless beneath his
horse's feet ; another attempts to fly towards the
jungle, but, receiving a last and fatal wound,
writhes in the agony of approaching death. § A
third springs up from behind his car, and the hero
prepares to receive it and check its fury with his
spear.
" Below this group is represented the march of
the Egyptian army, with their allies, the Shaire-
tana, the Slia . . . ., and a third corps, armed with
clubs, whose form and character are but imper-
fectly preserved. ||
* They were used in Egypt from the earliest times, and are mentioned
in Genesis xlv. 19., &c. Strabo also speaks of them, lib. xvii. They are
the more remarkable here, as putting us in mind of a custom, very preva-
lent among some eastern nations, of posting their wagons in "the rear
when going to battle. The Tartars of later times were noted for this
custom.
f With the hump of Indian cattle. They seem to have been formerly
very common in Egypt also, as they are at present in Kordofan and
Sennar.
X One modern author has supposed this to represent a lion chase,
another has discovered in it the lion of Osymandyas, which assisted him
in battle. We have frequently known sportsmen shoot their own dogs,
but nothing justifies a similar opinion with regard to the king on this
occasion.
§ The position of the lion is very characteristic of the impotent fury
of the disabled animal. Of the third little is seen but part of the fore-
paw : the attitude of the king supplies the rest.
II Vide supra, Vol. I. p. 287.
u 4
296
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
*' The enemy, having continued their rapid re-
treat, take refuge in the ships of a maritime
nation*, to whose country they have retired for
shelter. The Egyptians attack them with a fleet
of galleys and bearing down their op-
ponents, succeed in boarding them and taking
several prisoners. One of the hostile gallies is
upset ; and the slingers in the tops, with the
archers and spearmen on the prows, spread dismay
among the few who resist. The king, trampling
on the prostrate bodies of the enemy, and aided by
a corps of bowmen, discharges from the shore a
continued shower of arrows ; and his attendants
stand at a short distance with his chariot and
horses, and await his return. Below this scene, the
conquering army leads in triumph the prisoners of
the two nations they have captured in the naval
fight, and the amputated hands of the slain are laid
in heaps before the military chiefs
In the next compartment, the king distributes re-
wards to his victorious troops, and then proceeding
to Egypt, he conducts in triumph the captive
Rebo and Tokkari, whom he offers to the Theban
triad, Amun, Maut, and Khonso.
*' In the compartments above these historical
scenes, the king makes suitable offerings to the
gods of Egypt ; and, on the remaining part of the
east wall, to the south of the second propylon,
another war is represented.
*' In the first picture, the king alighted from his
* The Shairetana ; part of the same people who joined the Egyp-
tians as aUies in this war. Tiie expression 'maritime people' may imply
merely that they lived near a large lake.
CHAP. X. FORTIFIED TOWNS. 297
chariot, armed with his spear and shield, and
trampling on the prostrate bodies of the slain, be-
sieges the fort of an Asiatic enemy, whom he
forces to sue for peace. In the next, he attacks a
larger town surrounded by water. The Egyptians
fell the trees in the woody country which sur-
rounds it, probably to form testudos and ladders for
the assault. Some are applied by their comrades to
the walls ; and, while they reach their summit, the
gates are broken open, and the enemy are driven
from the ramparts, or precipitated over the parapet
by the victorious assailants, who announce by
sound of trumpet the capture of the place.
*' In the third compartment, on the north face of
the first propylon, Remeses attacks two large towns,
the upper one of which is taken with but little re-
sistance, the Egyptian troops having entered it and
gained possession of the citadel. In the lower one,
the terrified inhabitants are engaged in rescuing
their children from the approaching danger, by
raising them from the plain beneath to the ram-
parts of the outer wall. The last picture occupies
the upper or north end of the east wall, where the
king presents his prisoners to the gods of the
temple. The western wall is covered by a large
hieroglyphical tablet, recording offerings, made in
the different months of the year, by Remeses III."
This may serve to give an idea of the profusion
of sculpture on the walls of an Egyptian temple.
The whole was coloured ; and this variety served
as a relief to the otherwise sombre appearance of
massive straight walls, which formed the exterior
298 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
of Egyptian temples. All the architectural details
were likewise painted ; and though a person unac-
customed to see the walls of a large building so
decorated, might suppose the effect to be far from
pleasing, no one who understands the harmony of
colours will fail to admit that they perfectly under-
stood their distribution and proper combinations,
and that an Egyptian temple was greatly improved
by the addition of painted sculptures.
In a work of so limited a scale as the present, it
is impossible to give an adequate notion of a large
temple, whose details are so made up, or to give
the general effect of this kind of clair-ohscur ; but
an idea may be conveyed of some of the parts,
from the capitals of the columns, which I have
introduced in the frontispiece of this volume.
The introduction of colour in architecture was
not peculiar to the Egyptians : it was common to the
Etrurians, and even to the Greeks. For though
the writings of ancient authors afford no decided
evidence of the practice in Greece, and the pas-
sages adduced in support of it from Vitruvius*,
Pliny t, and Pausaniast, are neither satisfactory,
nor conclusive, the fact of colour having been found
on the monuments of Attica and Sicily is so well
* Vitriiv. iv. 2. " Tabellas ita formatas, uti nunc fiunt triglyphi,
contra tignoruin praecisiones in fronte fixeriint, et eas cera ccendea de-
pinxcrimty Vide also lib. vii. c. 9. and c. 3., where he shows the bad
taste of the Romans in their mode of painting their houses.
•f- Plin. xxxvi. 23. " In Elide aedes est Minervae, in qua frater Phidiae
Pannseus, tectorium induxit lacte et croco subactum." Vide also lib.
XXXV. c. 8. where he again mentions Pannaeus ; and, after saying Phidias
was originally a painter, adds that Pannaeus assisted in painting the
figure of Olympian Jupiter.
X Pausan. lib. v. Elis. c. xi. He znentions the works of the brother of
Phidias, whom he calls Panenus.
CHAP, X. GREEK MONUMENTS PAINTED. SQQ
authenticated, that no doubt can be entertained of
certain parts, at least, of Greek temples, of the
oldest and even of the best periods, having been
painted.
In the temple of Theseus at Athens, vestiges of
colours are seen on the ground of the frieze, on the
figures themselves, and on the ornamental details.*
The Parthenon presents remains of painting on some
members of the cornice, and the ground of the
frieze, above the interior of the peristyle, contain-
ing the reliefs of the Panathenaic procession, was
blue. The propyl aea of the Acropolis, the Ionic
temple on the Uissus, and the Choragic monu-
ment of Lysicrates also offer traces of colour ; and
vestiges of red, blue, and green, have been dis-
covered on the metopes of a temple at Selinus in
Sicily, by Messrs. Angell and Harris, who exca-
vated and examined the site of that ancient city
in 1823. In one of these, the figure of Minerva
has the eyes and eyebrows painted t; her drapery,
and the girdle of Perseus are also ornamented with
coloured devices, and the whole ground of this
and two other of the metopes is red.
Red and blue seem to have been generally used
for the ground ; and these two, with green, were
the principal colours introduced in Greek architec-
ture, many members of which were also gilt, as the
shields, guttas, and other prominent details ; but
* Vide Transactions of The Institute of British Architects, on the
polychromy of Greek architecture, translated irom the German of Kugler
by W. R. Hamilton Esq. p. 85. et seq.
f Vide the Sculptured Metopes of Selinus, by Messrs. Harris and
Angell, p. 49.
300 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
there is, as yet, no proof of the flesh of statues or
bas-rehefs having been painted, and many suppose
that the shafts of columns were always white, the
coloured parts being confined to the entablature
and pediment.
In Egyptian buildings, indeed, it sometimes
happened, that the shafts of columns were merely
covered with white stucco, without any ornament,
and even without the usual line of hieroglyphics ;
and the same custom of coating certain kinds of
stone with stucco was common in Greece. The
Egyptians always put this layer of stucco, or paint,
over stone, whatever its quality might be, and
we are surprised to find the beautiful granite of
obelisks and other monuments concealed in a similar
manner ; the sculptures engraved upon them being
also tinted either green, bhie, red, or other colour,
and frequently one and the same tln'oughout.
Whenever they employed sandstone, it was
absolutely necessary to cover it with a surface of
a smoother and less absorbent nature, to prevent
the colour being too readily imbibed by so porous a
stone ; and a coat of calcareous composition was
laid on before the paint was applied. When the
subject was sculptured, either in relief or intaglio,
the stone was coated, after the figures were cut,
with the same substance, to receive the final co-
louring ; and it had the additional advantage of
enabling the artist to finish the figures and other
objects, with a precision and delicacy in vain to
be expected on the rough and absorbent surface
of sandstone.
CHAP. X. EGYPTIAN COLOURS. 301
The Egyptians mixed their paint with water,
and it is probable, that a httle portion of gum
was sometimes added, to render it more tenacious
and adhesive. In most instances we find red,
green, and blue adopted ; an union which, for all
subjects, and in all parts of Egypt, was a particular
favourite : when black was introduced, yellow was
added to counteract or harmonise with it ; and in
like manner they sought for every hue its conge-
nial companion.
In the examination of the colours used for paint-
ing the walls, while at Thebes, I was led to the
conjecture *, that the reds and yellows were ochres ;
the blues and greens metallic, and prepared from
copper; the black, a lampblack; and the white a
finely levigated and prepared lime, I have since
been favoured with an analysis of those brought by
me from Thebes, which my friend Dr. Ure has
had the kindness to make, and which I am happy
in being able to introduce.
*' The colours are green, blue, red, black, yellow,
and white : 1st. The green pigment, scraped from
the painting in distemper, resists the solvent action
of muriatic acid, but becomes thereby of a brilliant
blue colour, in consequence of the abstraction of a
small portion of yellow ochreous matter. The resi-
duary blue powder has a sandy texture ; and when
viewed in the microscope is seen to consist of small
particles of blue glass. On fusing this vitreous matter
with potash, digesting the compound in diluted mu-
riatic acid, and treating the solution with water of
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 4;43.
302 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
ammonia in excess, the presence of copper becomes
manifest. A certain portion of precipitate fell,
■which being dissolved in muriatic acid, and tested,
proved to be oxide of iron. We may hence con-
clude, that the green pigment is a mixture of a little
ochre, with a pulverulent glass, made by vitrifying
the oxides of copper and iron with sand and soda.
The vitreous green coat upon the small Osiris
figures, so numerous in the Egyptian tombs of the
earliest times, is a similar composition.
" The green colour washed from the stone with a
sponge, and afterwards evaporated, consists of blue
glass in powder, mixed with a little ochre, and par-
ticles of colourless glass, to which it owes its
brighter hue.
" 2. The blue* pigment scraped from the stone
is a pulverulent blue glass of like composition,
without the ochreous admixture, brightened with
a little of the chalky matter used in the distemper
preparation.
" 3. The red pigment obtained by washing the
coloured stone in the tombs of the kings with a wet
sponge, and evaporating the liquid to dryness, when
treated with water, evinces the presence of glutin-
ous gummy matter.t It dissolves readily, in a great
measure, in muriatic acid, and aftbrds muriates of
iron and alumina. It is merely a red earthy bole.
* It is remarkable how much the Egjptian method of making this
colour resembled in principle that of our smalt. It agrees with the false
cyanus of Theophrastus (s. 98.), invented by an Egyptian king, which,
he says, was laid on thicker than the native (or lapis lazzuli). PUny
confounds the two, xxxvii. 9.
■\ The Egyptian colours contain gum ; but the quantity in these
specimens was owing to my having added it to form them into cakes.
CHAP. X. STYLE OF THE SCULPTURES. 303
" 4. The black pigment washed off the stone in the
same manner with a sponge, is not affected by diges-
tion in rectified petroleum, and contains, therefore,
no bitumen. It softens in hot water immediately,
and dissolves readily into a black liquid, which evi-
dently contains a gummy or mucilaginous matter.
When exposed to a red heat, upon a slip of platinum,
it takes fire, and burns with a fleeting white flame.
The remaining matter is difficult to incinerate, even
under the blowpipe, and then leaves a bulky grey ash.
This residuum dissolves, with very little efferves-
cence, in hot muriatic acid. When ammonia is
dropped into this solution it causes a bulky pre-
cipitate, which does not re-dissolve in excess of
solution of potash. These phenomena show the
pigment in question to be bone black (mixed with
a little gum). By another experiment, I found in
it traces of iron.
" 5. The white pigment scraped from the stone
in the tombs of the kings, is nothing but a very
pure chalk, containing hardly any alumina, and a
mere trace of iron.
" 6. The yellow pigment is a yellow iron ochre."
SCULPTURES IN RELIEF AND IN INTAGLIO.
The oldest Egyptian sculptures on all large mo-
numents were in low relief, and, as usual, at every
period, painted ; obelisks and every thing carved
in hard stone*, some funereal tablets and other
small objects, being in intaglio. This style con-
tinued in vogue until the time of Remeses II.,
* Some few granite monuments are in relief, but they are rare.
SOi THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
who began to introduce intaglio generally on large
monuments, and even his battle scenes at Karnak
and the Memnonium are executed in this manner.
The reliefs were little raised above the level of the
wall ; they had generally a flat surface, the edges
softly rounded off, in effect, far surpassing the
intaglio ; and it is to be regretted that the best
epoch of art, when design and execution Vv^ere
in their zenith, should have abandoned a style so
superior, which, too, would have improved in pro-
portion to the advancement of that period.
Intaglio continued to be generally employed,
until the accession of the 26th dynasty, when
the low relief was again introduced ; and in the
monuments of Psamaticus and Amasis are numer-
ous instances of the revival of the ancient style.
This was afterwards universally adopted, and
no return to intaglio on large monuments was
attempted, either in the Ptolemaic or Roman
periods.
The intaglio introduced by Remeses may, per-
haps, be denominated intaglio relie'vato, or relieved
intaglio. The sides of the incavo, which are perpen-
dicular, are cut to a considerable depth, and from
that part, to the centre of the figure (or whatever is
represented) is a gradual swell, the centre being
frequently on a level with the surface of the wall.
On this all the parts of dress, features, or devices,
are delineated and painted, and even the per-
pendicular sides are onamented in a corresponding-
manner, by continuing upon them the adjoining
details.
CHAP. X. SCULPTURES OF THE 26tH DYNASTY. 305
In the reign of Remeses III. a change was made
in the mode of sculpturing the intaglios, which, as
I have already observed *, consisted in carving the
lower side to a great depth, while the upper face
inclined gradually from the surface of the wall till
it reached the innermost part of the intaglio ; it
was principally done in the hieroglyphics, in order
to enable a person standing immediately beneath,
and close to the wall on which they were sculp-
tured, to distinguish and read them ; and the de-
tails upon the perpendicular sides, above mentioned,
had the same effect.
It was a peculiarity of style not generally imi-
tated by the successors of Remeses III., and hiero-
glyphics bearing this character may serve to fix
the date of monuments, wherever they are found, to
the age of that monarch. After his reign no great
encouragement appears to have been given to the
rt arts; the subjects represented on the few monu-
ments of the epoch intervening between his
death, and the succession of the 26th dynasty, are
principally confined to sacred subjects, in which no
display of talent is shown ; and the records of
Sheshonk*s victories at Karnak are far from par-
taking of the vigour of former times, either in
style, or in the mode of treating the subject.
After the accession of the 26th dynasty some at-
tempt was made to revive the arts, which had been
long neglected ; and independent of the patronage
of government, the wealth of private individuals was
liberally employed in their encouragement. Pu])lic
* Vide Vol. I. p. 85. ; and Materia Hicrogl. p. 95.
VOL. III. X
306
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
buildings were erected in many parts of Egypt,
and beautified with rich sculpture ; the city of
Sajfs, the royal residence of the Pharaohs of that
dynasty, was adorned with the utmost magni-
ficence ; and extensive additions were made to the
temples of Memphis, and even to those of the
distant Thebes.
The fresh impulse thus given to art was not with-
out efl^ect ; the sculptures of that period exhibit
an elegance and beauty, which might even induce
some to consider them equal to the productions
of an earlier age ; and in the tombs of the As-
saseef, at Thebes, are many admirable specimens
of Egyptian art. To those, however, who under- *
stand the true feeling of this peculiar school, it is
evident, that though in minuteness and finish they
are deserving of the highest commendation, yet,
in grandeur of conception and in boldness of exe-
cution, they fall far short of the sculptures of
Osirei, and the second Remeses.
In forming an opinion of the different styles of
Egyptian sculpture, it is frequently difficult for
an unpractised eye to decide upon their peculiar
merits, or their respective ages ; and in nothing,
perhaps, has this been more fully demonstrated,
than in the Isiac table, now at Turin. Every
one, acquainted with Egyptian art, must be struck
at first sight with the very modern date and Ro-
man origin of this monument ; and the position
of the hieroglyphics shows that the maker of it
was ignorant of the subject he was treating. I
should, therefore, not have thought it necessary
CHAP. X. FALL OF THE ARTS. 307
to notice so palpable a forgery, had not the learned
Winkelmann censured bishop Warburton for a
judicious remark, in which he is borne out by
fact, and for which he deserves great credit.
*' I cannot help," says Winkelmann*, " here no-
ticing an error of Warburton, who advances, that
the famous Isiac table of bronze, inlaid with figures
in silver, is a work made at Rome. His opinion is
destitute of foundation, and lie only appears to have
adopted it, because it suited his own system. Be
it as it may, this monument has all the character
of the most ancient Egyptian style."
Justice must be done to the judgment of Warbur-
ton, and a remark of this kind, made by a person
of Winkelmann's reputation, is of too great weight
to pass unnoticed.
The invasion of Cambyses, as I have already
stated, struck a death blow to the arts in Egypt.
Sculptors, painters, and artisans of every descrip-
tion, were taken from their country, and sent to
Persia by the victors to embellish the monuments
of their enemies with the records of their own
misfortunes ; and in spite of the encouragement
afterwards given by the Ptolemies, the spark of
genius, then so nearly extinguished, could not
be rekindled, and Egypt was doomed to witness
the total decadence of those arts for which she
had been long renowned.
The sculptures of the Ptolemaic periods are coarse
and heavy, deficient in grace and spirit, and totally
wanting in the character of the true Egyptian school,
* Winkelmann, Hist, de I'Art. lib. ii. c. 1. s. 40.
X 2
t308 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
at the same time tliat they partake of nothing Greek
either in form or feeling ; for the Egyptians never
borrowed any notions, on those points, from the
foreigners with whom they had so long an inter-
course, throughout the period of Greek and Roman
rule. The sculptures executed in the time of the
Caesars are still more degraded in every respect j
and so low did they fall at this period, that
many do not claim a rank above those of the
humblest village tombstone. Still the architec-
ture continued to be grand and majestic, and many
of the monuments of a Ptolemaic and Roman era
merit a better style of sculpture.
" Architecture," as I have elsewhere observed*,
" more dependent on adherence to certain rules
than the sister art, was naturally less speedily affected
by the decline of taste and ingenuity of its profes-
sors ; and as long as encouragement was held out
to their exertions, the grandest edifices might
be constructed from mere imitation, or from the
knowledge of the means necessary for their exe-
cution. But this could never be the case with
sculpture, which had so many more requisites than
previous example or long established custom ; nor
could success be attained by the routine of mecha-
nism, or the servile imitation of former models."
It is remarkable that the architecture, even of
tlie early time of Osirtasen, far excelled the sculp-
ture of that day ; and the grace and simplicity of
the grottos at Beni Hassan, which call to mind
in their elegant columns the Doric character, must
* Egypt and Thebos, p. 163.
CHAP. X.
GROTTOS OF BENI HASSAN.
209
be highly admired, even though seen amidst the
grandeur of the monuments of Remeses. These
columns are 3 ft. 4 in. in diameter, and 16 ft. 8J in.
high*; they have sixteen faces or grooves, each
about eight inches wide, and so slight and elegant
that their depth does not exceed half an inch. One
of the faces, which is not hollowed into a groove, is
left for the introduction of a column of hieroglyphics.
The roofs of some of the grottos of Beni Hassan,
are cut into a slight segment of a circle, in imit-
ation of the arch, which, as I have had occasion
to observe, was probably known in Egypt at
this early period ; and it is remarkable, that the
walls are stained and sprinkled with colour, to give
them the appearance of red granite. This is the
general character of the larger and northernmost
grottos ; the others differ, both in the form and
style of the columns, and in their general appear-
ance ; but the transverse section of one of them
will suffice to show the elegance of their depressed
pediment, — which extends, in lieu of architrave,
No. 383. Section of otic of tlie southern grottos of Beni Hassan.
* Vide wood-cut, No. '.iM.yigs. 2, 3.
X 3
310
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
over the columns of the interior, — and the simplicity
of their general effect.
The most favourite Egyptian capitals were those
in form of the full blown water plant, supposed by
some to be the papyrus, which was emblematic of
the lower country*, and the unopened bud of the
same, or of the lotus ; and that this last gave the
original idea of the Doric capital is not improbable,
since, by removing the upper part, and bringing
down the abacus, it presents the same appearance as
the early Greek style, t
Fig. 1. Columns in the portico of the northern grottos of Beni Hassan.
2. Columns of the interior.
3. Horizontal section of fig. 2, showing the grooves.
4. One of the grooves on a larger scale.
5. An Egyptian capital, which seems to have been the origin of the Doric : fig. P.
* Vide Capitals of Columns, Frontispiece of this Volume.
\ Vide wood-cut, No. .384-.y?g5. 5, 6.
CHAP. X.
PAINTING,
311
PAINTING.
Of painting, apart from sculpture, and of the
excellence to which it attained in Egypt, we can
form no accurate opinion, nothing having come
down to us of a Pharaonic period, or of that epoch
when the arts were at their zenith in Egypt ; but
that, already in the time of Osirtasen, they painted
on board, is shown by one of the subjects at Beni
Hassan, where two artists are engaged in a picture,
representing a calf, and an antelope overtaken by a
dog. The painter holds his brush in one hand, and his
palette or saucer of colour in the other j but, though
No. 385.
a 2 3
Artists painting on a board, and colouring a figure.
Beni Hassan.
the boards stand upright, there is no indication of
a contrivance to steady or support the hand.
Mention is made of an Egyptian painting by
Herodotus, who tells us that Amasis sent a portrait
of himself to Cyrene*, probably on wood ; and some,
of uncertain period, have been found in the tombs
of Thebes. Two of these are preserved in the
British Museum, but they are evidently of Greek
time, and, perhaps, even after the conquest of
* Herod, ii. 182.
X 4
312 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
Egypt by the Romans. It is therefore vahi to
speculate on the nature of then* painting, or their
skill in this branch of art; and, though some
of the portraits taken from the mummies may
prove that encaustic painting with wax and naph-
tha was adopted in Egypt, the time when it was
first known there is uncertain, nor can we conclude
from a specimen of Greek time, that the same was
practised in a Pharaonic age.
Pliny states, in his chapter on inventions*, that
*' Gyges, a Lydian, was the earliest painter, in
Egypt ; and Euchir, a cousin of Daedalus, accord-
ing to Aristotle, the first in Greece ; or, as Theo-
phrastus thinks, Polygnotus the Athenian." But
the painting represented at Beni Hassan evidently
dates before any of those artists. Pliny, in another
placet, says, " the origin of painting is uncertain :
the Egyptians pretend that it was invented by
them 6000 years before it passed into Greece ; a
vain boast, as every one will allow." It must, how-
ever, be admitted, that all the arts were cultivated
in Egypt long before Greece existed as a nation ;
and the remark he afterwards makes t, that paint-
ing was unknown at the period of the Trojan war,
can only be applied to the Greeks ; as is shown by
the same unquestionable authority at Beni Hassan,
of the remote era of Osirtasen, who lived upwards
of 1700 years before our era, between five and six
hundred years previous to the taking of Troy.
* Plin. vii. 56.
j- Plin. XXXV. 3. He also mentions line drawings as an invention
of the Eg) ptians.
J Plin. XXXV. .3., at the end.
CHAP. X. MODE OF DRAWING. 313
STYLE OF THEIR DRAWING.
The skill of the Egyptian artists in drawing bold
and clear outlines is, perhaps, more worthy of
admiration than any thing connected with this
branch of art ; and I have had occasion to notice
the freedom, with which the figures in the un-
finished part of Belzoni's tomb at Thebes are
sketched. I have also noticed * the manner in
which they began those drawings previous to their
being sculptured and painted.
The walls having been ruled in red squares " the
position of the figures was decided by the artist, who
traced them roughly with a red colour; and the
draughtsman then carefully sketched the outlines in
black, and submitted them to the inspection of the
former, who altered (as appears in some few instances
here) those parts which he deemed deficient in pro-
portion or correctness of attitude ; and in that
state they were left for the chisel of the sculptor."
Sometimes the squares were dispensed with, and
the subjects were drawn by the eye, which appears
to have been the case with many of those in the
tomb here alluded to.
In some pictures, we observe certain conventional
rules of drawing, which are singular, and perhaps
confined to the Egyptians and Chinese, an instance
of which may be seen in the frontispiece to my
* Materia Hieroglyphica.* The subject represents
Amunra the god of Thebes seated on his throne, and
presenting the emblem of life to Remeses the Great,
who stands before him. The deities Khonso and
Bubastis are also present. The god being con-
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 107.
314 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
sidered the principal figure, every means are used
to prevent the intervention of any object, which
might conceal or break through its outline : the
leg therefore of the king, though in reality com-
ing in front, is placed behind his foot ; but as the
base of the throne is of less importance than the
leg of the king, the latter is continued in an un-
broken line to the bottom of the picture ; and the
same is observed in his hand, which being an
object of more consequence in the subject than
the tail of the deity, is not subjected to any
interruption.
The Egyptians had no notion of perspective,
either in figures, or in the representation of inani-
mate objects ; and those on the same plane, instead
of being shown one behind the other, were placed
in succession one above the other, on the perpen-
dicular wall.
Of the quality of the pencils they used, for draw-
ing and painting, it is difficult to form any opinion.
Those generally employed for writing were a reed
or rush, many of which have been found with
the tablets or inkstands belonging to the scribes ;
and with these, too, they probably sketched the
figures in red and black upon the stone, or stucco
of the walls. To put in the colour, we may
suppose that brushes of some kind were used ; but
the minute scale on which the subjects are indicated
in the sculptures prevents our deciding the question.
Habits among men of similar occupations are fre-
quently alike, even in the most distant countries ;
and, we find it was not unusual for an Egyptian
artist, or scribe, to put his reed pencil behind his ear,
CHAP. X.
PAINTERS AND SCRIBES.
31.
when engaged in examining the effect of his paint-
ing, or listening to a person on business, as in the
modern studio, or the counting-house of an Euro-
pean town.
Painters and scribes deposited their writing im-
plements in a box with a pendent leather top, which
was tied up with a loop or thong ; and a handle,
or strap was fastened to the side to enable them
to carry it more conveniently. Their ordinary
wooden tablet was furnished with two or more
cavities for holding the colours, a tube in the
No. 386.
■ A scribe writing on a tablet. c and d are two cases for carrying writing
materials. Thebes.
No. 387. Scribe with his inkstand upon the table. One pen is put behind his ear, and
he is writing with another. Thebes.
centre containing the pens or reeds ; and certain
memoranda were frequently written at the back of
it, when a large piece of papyrus, or the wooden
slab, were not required.
316 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
ARCHITECTURE.
Of the architecture, plans, and distribution of
their dwelHng-houses, I have ah'eady treated in a
preceding volume*; and of the great use they
made of crude brick for this purpose ; those burnt
in a kiln being rarely employed, except in damp
situations.t The bricks were formed in a simple
mould, frequently bearing a government stamp ;
and the number of persons employed in their manu-
facture is readily accounted for by the great demand
for those materials in the construction of dwelling
houses, and ordinary buildings ; stone being con-
fined principally to the temples, and other monu-
ments connected with religion ; but this has been
already noticed ; and I now merely introduce the
subject of crude brick in connection with the arch.
I have frequently had occasion to mention the
antiquity of the arch, and have shown that it ex-
isted of brick in the reign of Amunoph I., as
early as the year 1540 before our erat, and of
stone in the time of the second Psamaticus, b. c.
600.§ I have suggested the probability of its
having owed its invention to the small quantity of
wood in Egypt, and the consequent expence of
roofing with timber, and have ventured to con-
clude, from the paintings at Beni Hassan, that
vaulted buildings were made in Egypt as early as the
reign of Osirtasen, the contemporary of Joseph, who
lived between three and four thousand years ago. ||
* Vol. 11. p. 95. et seq.
\ The southern extremity of the quay, near the temple of Luqsor,
at Thebes, is built of burnt brick. Crude bricks were common in many
Eastern countries, as at Babylon, and other places.
X Egypt and Thebes, p. 81. and 126. § Ibid. p. .337.
II Supra, Vol. II., p. 117.
CHAP. X. BRICK PYRAMIDS. 317
The age of the crude brick pyramids of Mem-
phis, and the Arsinoi'te nome is unknown. Hero-
dotus tells us the first built of those materials was
erected by Asychis, whom he makes the predeces-
sor of Anysis the contemporary of Sabaco, thus
limiting its date to the ninth century before our
era; and, consequently, as I have observed*,
making it posterior to those at Thebes, which
were erected about the period of the 18th dynasty.
It is, however, far more probable, that a long
period intervened between the reigns of Asychis and
Anysis t; and that the former lived many ages before
Bocchoris; which is confirmed by another passage
in Herodotus, placing him as the immediate suc-
cessor of Mycerinus the son of Cheops ; and the
ruinous and crumbled appearance of the brick
pyramids of Dashoor, fully justifies the opinion that
they were erected very soon after the stone ones,
near which they stand, and to which the inscrip-
tion of Asychis forbade the spectator to compare
them.t They have had chambers, the lower part
of whose side walls are still visible; and we may
be permitted to conclude that they were arched,
like those at Thebes.
If, then, the brick pyramids of Memphis were
erected by the successsor of the son of Cheops,
and the chambers were, as I suppose, vaulted,
the invention of the arch will be carried back
nearly 7OO years prior to the reign of Amunoph,
* Supra, Vol. I. p. 132.
f To prevent further discussion on the reigns of those kings, I did
not suggest this opinion in the iiistoriciil notice taken from Herodotus
(in Vol. I. p. 13:-!.), and have reserved it for the |n-esent occarsion, as
it bears more particularly on the (juestion respecting the antiquity of
the arch. \ Vide\o\.\. p. 131."
318 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
about 2020 years before our era. This is a con-
jecture on which I do not wish to insist ; we may,
for the present, be satisfied with the fact that this
style of building was in common use 8370 years
ago, and rejoice that the name of Amunophhas
been preserved on the stucco, coating the interior
of a vaulted tomb at Thebes, to announce it, and
to silence the incredulity of a sceptic.
The appearance and position of other tombs, in
the vicinity of the Ptolemaic temple of Dayr el
Medeeneh at Thebes, had always convinced me that
their vaulted roofs were of the time of Amunoph and
his immediate successors ; but, however satisfied on
this point myself, I could find no name to sanction
my opinion, or to justify me in its assertion, until
accident threw in my way the building in question*,
while prosecuting my researches there in 1827 j ^^^
I have the satisfaction to learn that another tomb
has since been discovered of similar construction,
which presents the ovals of the third Thothmes.
The pyramids of Gebel Birkel (Napata), and
Dunkalah (Meroe), are of uncertain date, but
there is every reason to believe them, as well
as the small temples attached to their front, of an
age long anterior to the Ptolemies, or, as Mr.
Hoskins thinks, " of a far more ancient date than
Tirhaka ; " and we there find stone arches, both
round and pointed f, some of which are built with
a keystone t, on the same principle as our own.
* Materia Hierogl. p. 80. f Vide Hoskins's Ethiopia, p. 156.
:{: Tiie keystone is mentioned by Seneca, Epist. 90. Many round
and pointed arches of a late time have been built without it, and the
principle of the arch does not depend upon it, but on the adjustment
of all the stones.
CHAP. X. ANTIQUITY OF THE ARCH. 319
At Memphis, too, near the modern village of
Saqqara, is a tomb, with two large vaulted chambers,
whose roofs display in every part the name and
sculptures of the second Psamaticus. They are
cut in the limestone rock ; and in order to secure
the roof, which is of a friable nature, they are
lined, if I may so call it, with an arch, as our
modern tunnels. The arch is of stone, and presents
a small and graceful segment of a circle, having a
span of seven feet ten inches, and a height of two
feet eight inches and a half. *
Numerous crude brick arches, of different dates,
exist in Thebest, besides the small pyramids already
alluded to, some of which are of very beautiful
construction. The most remarkable are the door-
ways of the enclosures surrounding the tombs in
the Assaseef, which are composed of two or more
concentric semicircles of brick 1:, as well constructed
as any of the present day. They are of the time of
Psamaticus and other princes of the 26th dynasty,
immediately before the invasion of Cambyses.
All the bricks radiate to a common centre : they
are occasionally pared off at the lower part, to
allow for the curve of the arch, and sometimes
the builders were contented to put in a piece of
stone to fill up the increased space between the
upper edges of the bricks. In those roofs of houses
or tombs, which were made with less care, and re-
quired less solidity, the bricks were placed longi-
tudinally, in the direction of the curve of the vault,
* Vide Vignette I. of this chapter.
f One is introckiced into wood-cut No. 388. fig. I .
% As of that in wood-cut, No. 119. p. 131. Vol. II.
320 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X
and the lower ends were then cut away considera-
bly, to allow for the greater opening between them ;
and many were grooved at the sides, in order to
retain a greater quantity of mortar between their
united surfaces.
Though the oldest stone arch, whose age has
been positively ascertained, dates only in the time
of Psamaticus, w^e cannot suppose that the use of
stone was not adopted by the Egyptians for that
style of building, previous to his reign, even if the
arches of the pyramids in Ethiopia should prove
not to be anterior to the same era. Nor does the
absence of the arch in temples and other large
buildings excite our surprise, when we consider
the style of Egyptian monuments ; and no one who
understands the character of their architecture could
wish for its introduction. In some of the small
temples of the Oasis, the Romans attempted tliis
innovation, but the appearance of the chambers so
constructed fails to please ; and the whimsical ca-
price of Osirei, who introduced an imitation of the
arch in a temple at Abydus, was not followed by
any of his successors.* In this building the root
is formed of single blocks of stone reaching from
one architrave to the other, which, instead of being
placed in the usual manner, stand upon their edges,
in order to allow room for hollowing out an arch
in their thickness : but it has an effect of inconsis-
tency, without the plea of advantage or utility.
Another imitation of the arch occurs in a buildinjr
at Thebes. Here, however, a reason may perhaps
* Vide wood-cut. No. 388. 7?g. 3.
CHAP. X.
FALSE ARCHES.
321
be given for its introduction, being in the style of
a tomb, and not constructed as an Egyptian temple,
nor bound to accord with the ordinary rules of ar-
chitecture. The chambers, like those of the tomb
of Saqqara, lie under a friable rock, and are cased
with masonry, to prevent the fall of its crumbling
stone y but instead of being roofed on the principle
of the arch, they are covered with a number of large
blocks placed horizontally, one projecting beyond
that immediately below it, till the uppermost two
meet in the centre, the interior angles being after-
wards rounded off to form the appearance of a vault.
The date of this building is about 1500, b. c.
1
__ 1 1
1 .^: iX 1 i
/.'
i V.
1 /i
1
/ .
tefe
J
1
No. 38S. — Fig. 1. Vaulted rooms and doorway of a crude brick pyramid at Thebes.
2. All imitation of an arch at Thebes,
S. Another at Abydus
4. Mode of commencing a quarry.
VOL. III. Y
322 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
consequently many years after the Egyptians had
been acquainted with the art of vaulting ; and the
reason of their preferring such a mode of construc-
tion probably arose from their calculating the great
difficulty of repairing an injured arch, in this po-
sition, and the consequences attending the decay of
a single block; nor can any one suppose, from
the great superincumbent weight applied to the
haunches^ that this style of building is devoid of
strength, and of the usual durability of an Egyptian
fabric, or pronounce it ill suited to the purpose for
which it was erected.*
STONES HEWN FROM QUARRIES FOR BUILDING, FOR
SCULPTURE, AND OTHER PURPOSES.
The most ancient buildings in Egypt were con-
structed of limestone, hewn from the mountains
bordering the valley of the Nile to the east and
west, extensive quarries of which may be seen
at El Maasarat, Nesleh Shekh Hassan, El Ma-
abdeh, and other places; and evidence of its being
used long before sandstone is derived from the
tombs near the pyramids, as well as those mon-
uments themselves, and from the vestiges of old
substructions at Thebes.t Limestone continued
to be occasionally employed for building even after
the succession of the l6th dynasty §; but so soon
* Vide wood-cut, No. 388..;%. 2.
f Vide Egypt and Thebes, p. 322. and 348., the Troici lapidis mons
of Ptolemy and Strabo.
X Limestone blocks are sometimes found in the thickness of the
walls of sandstone temples, of the time of Reraeses IL and other kings,
taken from older monuments.
§ Herodotus says, Amasis, even, used the stone of the quarries near
Memphis, probably of the Maasara hills, for part of the temple of Minerva
at Sais, lib. ii. 175. '7(/r Egypt and Thebes, p. 442,
CHAP. X. USE OF LIMESTONE. 3'2S
as the durability of sandstone was ascertained, the
quarries of SilsiHs* were opened, and those ma-
terials were universally adopted, and preferred for
their even texture, and the ease with which they
were wrought.
The extent of the quarries at Silsilis, is very
great; and, as I have elsewhere observed, " it is not
by the size and scale of the monuments of Upper
Egypt alone that we are enabled to judge of the
stupendous works executed by the ancient Egyp-
tians : these would suffice to prove the character
they bore, were the gigantic ruins of Thebes and
other cities t no longer in existence. And safely
may we apply the expression, used by Pliny in
speaking of the porphyry quarries, to those of Sil-
silis, "they are of such extent, that masses of any
dimensions might be hewn from them."
In opening a new quarry, when the stone could
not be taken from the surface of the rock, and it
was necessary to cut into the lower part of its
perpendicular face, they pierced it with a horizontal
shaft ; beginning with a square trench, and then
breaking away the stone left in the centre (as in-
dicated in the wood-cut by the space b), its height
and breadth depending of course on the size of
the stones requiied. They then cut the same
around c, and so on to any extent in a horizontal
direction, after which they extended the work
downwards, in steps, taking away e, and leaving
D for the present, and thus descending as far as
* Egj-pt and Thebes, p. 439.
-|- Herodotus (ii. 177), and Pliny (v. 9.), reckon 20,000 cities in Egypt
in the time of Amasis.
Y 2
32*
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
they found convenient, or the stone continued good.
They then returned, and cut away the steps d, f,
and all the others, reducing each time one step in
depth, till at last there remained at x a perpendicu-
lar wall J and when the quarries were of very great
horizontal extent, pillars were left at intervals to
support the roof
In one of the quarries at El Maasara, the mode
of transporting the stone is represented. It is
No. 389. Removing a.slonefrom the cjiiarriesat Kl Alaasara.
placed on a sledge, drawn by oxen, and is supposed
to be on its way to the inclined plane that led to
the river ; vestiges of which may still be seen a
little to the south of the modern village.
Sometimes, and particularly when the blocks were
large and ponderous, men were employed to drag
them, and those condemned to hard labour in the
quarries as a punishment, appear to have been
required to assist in moving a certain number of
stones, according to the extent of their offence,
ere they were liberated ; and this expression,
" I have dragged 110 stones for the building of
Isis at Philae," in an inscription at the quarries
of Gertassy in Nubia, seems to confirm my con-
jecture. In order to keep an account of their
progress, they frequently cut the initials of their
name, or some private mark, with the num-
ber, on the rock whence the stone was taken, as
CHAP. X. TRANSPORT OF LARGE STONES. 3^5
soon as it was removed : thus, c. xxxii., pd. xxxiii.,
PD. xxxiiii., and numerous other signs occur at
the quarries of Fateereh.
The blocks were taken from the quarry on
sledges ; and in a grotto behind E*Dayr, a Christ-
ian village between Antinoe and El Bersheh, is
the representation* of a colossus, which a number
of men are employed in dragging with ropes ; a
subject doubly interesting, from being of the early
age of Osirtasen IL, and one of the very few
paintings which throw any light on the method
employed by the Egyptians for moving weights.
For it is singular, that we find no illustration of
the mechanical means of a people who have left
so many unquestionable proofs of skill in these
matters.
It is not to be supposed that the colossus was
hewn in the hill of El Bersheh. This picture, like
the trades, fowhng scenes, and other subjects, re-
presented in similar grottoes, only refers to one of
the occupations of the Egyptians tj nor does it
even follow, that the inmate of the tomb had any
office connected with the superintendence of the
quarries whence it was brought.
One hundred and seventy -two ment, in four rows,
of forty-three each, pull the ropes attached to the
front of the sledge ; and a liquid, probably grease,
is poured from a vase, by a person standing on the
* This curious subject was first discovered by captains Irby and
Mangles. From the heard we see the statue is of a private individual.
t Vide Egypt and Thebes, p. 142.
X The number may be indefinite; and it is probable that more were
really emplo^'ed than indicated in the painting.
Y 3
3^6 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
pedestal of the statue, in order to facilitate its pro-
gress as it slides over the ground ; which was pro-
bably covered with a bed of planks, though they
are not indicated in the painting.
Some of the persons employed in this laborious
duty appear to be Egyptians, the others are foreign
slaves, who are clad in the costume of their coun-
try ; and behind are four rows of men, who, though
only twelve in number, may be intended to repre-
sent the set which relieved the others when fatigued.
Below are persons carrying vases of the liquid,
or, perhaps water, for the use of the workmen,
and some implements connected with the transport
of the statue, followed by taskmasters with their
wands of office. On the knee of the figure stands
a man who claps his hands, to the measured ca-
dence of a song, to mark the time and ensure
their simultaneous draught ; for it is evident that,
in order that the whole power might be applied at
the same instant, a sign of this kind was necessary ;
and the custom of singing at their work * was com-
mon to every occupation! among the Egyptians,
as it now is in that country, in India, and many
other places. Nor is it found a disadvantage among
the modern sailors of Europe, when engaged in
pulling a rope, or in any labour which requires a
simultaneous effort.
* The custom of singing or shouting, while treading grapes in the
winepress, is mentioned by Jeremiah, xxv. 30. " He shall give a shout
as they that tread the grapes ;" and Isaiah, xvi. 10, " In the vineyard
there shall be no singing," being common to other people as well as the
Egyptians.
f Also during the dance. Conf. 1 Sam. xxi. 11. " Did they not sing
one to another of him in dances ? "
CHAP. X. TRANSPORT OF SMALL STONES. 327
The height of the statue appears to have been
about twenty-four feet, mcluding the pedestal,
and it was of limestone*, as the colour and the
hieroglyphics inform us. It was bound to the
sledge by double ropes, which were tightened by
means of long pegs inserted between them, and
twisted round until completely braced ; and, to
prevent injury from the friction of the ropes upon
the stone, a compress of leather or other substance
was introduced at the part where they touched the
statue.
It is singular that the position of the ring to
which all the ropes were attached for moving the
mass, was confined to one place at the front of the
statue, and did not extend to the back part of the
sledge, but this was owing to the shortness of the
body; and, when of great length, it is probable
that ropes were fixed at intervals along the sides
in order to give an opportunity of applying
a greater moving power. For this purpose, in
blocks of very great length, (as the columns at
Fateereh, which are about 60 ft. long, and 8 J ft.
in diameter,) certain pieces of stone were left, pro-
jecting from the sides, like the trunnions of a gun,
to which several ropes were attached, each pulled
by its own set of men.
Small blocks of stone were sent from the quarries
by water to their different places of destination,
either in boats or rafts ; but those of very large
dimensions were dragged by men, overland, in
* Tlie word in the hieroglyphics signifies either Hmestone or sand-
stone.
Y 4
328
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
9 S
o "i
3 lu i
« « g
■-•g.sgSg ^
3 97^^-2 «
c o •" * « (o" o *"
i i2 — O 2^^ E <»
= 3^ S « " ^-S
^ -S =.x: .£ '5 " S
S2So3&5»
^ lo o o4
CHAP. X. THEIR MECHANICAL SKILL. 329
the manner, here represented ; and the immense
weight of some shows that the Egyptians were
well acquainted with mechanical powers, and the
mode of applying a locomotive force with the
most wonderful success.
The obelisks transported from the quarries of
Syene, at the first cataracts, in latitude 24° 5' 23'',
to Thebes and Heliopolis, vary in size from seventy
to ninety-three feet in length. They are of one
single stone ; and the largest in Egypt, which is
that of the great temple at Karnak, I calculate to
weigh about 297 tons. This was brought about
138 miles from the quarry to where it now stands,
and those taken to Heliopolis passed over a space
of more than 800 miles. The power, however, to
move the mass was the same, whatever might be
the distance, and the mechanical skill which trans-
ported it five, or even one, would suffice for any
number of miles.
In examining the ruins of western Thebes, and
reading the statements of ancient writers regarding
the stupendous masses of granite conveyed by this
people for several hundred miles, our surprise is
greatly increased. We find in the plain of Qoorneh
two colossi of Amunoph III., of a single block
each*, forty-seven feet in height, which contain
about 11,500 cubic feet, and are made of a stone
not known within several days' journey of the
place ; and at the Memnonium, is another of Re-
meses II. which when entire weighed upwards
* One of these is the vocal Meinnon. Vide Egypt and Thebes,
p. 33. ct seq. Tliis was broken and repaircil.
330 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
of 887 tons*, and was brought from E'Sooan
to Thebes, a distance, as before stated, of 138
miles. This is certainly a surprising weight, and
we cannot readily suggest the means adopted for
its transport, or its passage of the river ; but the
monolithic temple, said by Herodotus to have been
taken from Elephantine to Buto, in the Delta, was
still larger, and far surpassed in weight the pedestal
of Peter the Great's statue at St. Petersburgh, which
is calculated at about 1200 tons.
He also mentions a monolith at Sais, of which he
gives the following account : — "What I admire still
more, is a monument of a single block of stone, which
Amasis transported from the city of Elephantine. t
Two thousand men, of the class of boatmen, were
employed to bring it, and were occupied three years
in this arduous task. The exterior length is twenty-
one cubits (31:|ft.); the breadth fourteen (22 ft.);
and the height eight (12 ft.) ; and, within, it mea-
sures eighteen cubits twenty digits (28 ft. 3 in.)
in length; twelve (18ft.) in breadth; and five
(72 ft.) in height. It lies near the entrance of
the temple, not having been admitted into the
building, in consequence, as they say, of the engi-
neer*, while superintending the operation of dragging
it forward, having sighed aloud, as if exhausted with
fatigue, and impatient of the time it had occupied ;
which being looked upon by Amasis as a bad
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 1 1.
-j- The island opposite Syene, immediately below the first cataract.
The granite rocks stretch from the interior of the desert to the Nile
in this part : the sandstone crosses the river more to the north, a little
below Eilethyas. Vide Egypt and Thebes, p. 4-^0. and p. 452.
CHAP. X. IMMENSE MONOLITH ^T BUTO. 331
omen, he forbade its being taken any further.
Some, however, state that this was in consequence
of a man having been crushed beneath it while
moving it with levers.** *
Herodotus's measurement is given as it lay on
the ground ; his length is properly its height, and
his height the depth, from the front to the back ;
for, judging from the usual form of these mono-
lithic monuments, it was doubtless like that of the
same king at Tel-et-Mai, given in Mr. Burton's
Excerptat, the dimensions of which are 21 ft. 9 in.
high, 13 ft. broad, and 11 ft. 7 in. deep ; and in-
ternally 19 ft. 3 in., 8 ft. and 8 ft. 3 in.
The weight of the Sai'te monolith cannot cer-
tainly be compared to that of the colossus of
Remeses ; but when we calculate the solid con-
tents of the temple of Latona at Buto, our astonish-
ment is unbounded ; and we are perplexed to
account for the means employed to move a mass
which, supposing the walls to have been only 6 ft.
thick (for Herodotus t merely gives the external
measurement of forty cubits, or 60 ft. in height,
breadth, and thickness,) must have weighed up-
wards of 5000 tons.§
The skill of the Egyptians was not confined to
the mere moving of immense weights ; their won-
derful knowledge of mechanism is shown in the
erection of obelisks, and in the position of large
stones, raised to a considerable height, and ad-
justed with the utmost precision; sometimes, too, in
* Herodot.ii. 175. f Plate 4.1. % Herodot. ii. 155.
§ This is supposing it to be granite, as these uionolithic temples were.
3SQ THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
situations where the space will not admit the intro-
duction of the inclined plane. Some of the most
remarkable are the lintels and roofing stones of the
large temples ; and the lofty doorway leading into
the grand hall of assembly, at Karnak, is covered
with sandstone blocks, 40 ft. 10 in. long, and 5 ft.
2 in. square.
In one of the quarries at E'Sooan (Syene) is a
granite obelisk, which having been broken in the
centre after it was finished, was left in the exact
spot where it had been separated from the rock.
The depth of the quarry is so small, and the
entrance to it so narrow, that itjvas impossible for
them to turn the stone, in order to remove it by
that opening ; it is, therefore, evident that they
must have lifted it out of the hollow in which it
had been cut ; as was the case with all the other
shafts previously hewn in the same quarry. Such
instances as these suffice to prove the wonderful
mechanical knowledge of the Egyptians ; and we
may question whether with the ingenuity and
science of the present day our engineers are capa-
ble of raising weights with the same facility as that
ancient people.*
Pliny mentions several obelisks of very large
dimensions, some of which were removed to Rome,
where they now stand as tokens of the empty
vanity of man.
The Egyptians naturally looked on those monu-
* M. Lebas, well known in France as an eminent engineer, who
removed the obelisk of Luxor now at Paris, has paid a just tribute to
the skill of the Egyptians.
CHAP. X. OBELISKS. 333
ments with feelings of veneration, being connected
with their rehgion, and the glorious memory of
their monarchs j and at the same time perceived
that, in buildings constructed as their temples were,
the monotony of numerous horizontal lines re-
quired a relief of this kind ; but the same feelings
did not influence others, and few motives can be
assigned for their removal to Europe, beyond the
desire of possessing what required great difficulty
to obtain, and flattered the pride of a vain people.
I will not pretend to say that the ancient Ro-
mans committed the same strange outrage to taste
as their modern successors, who have destroyed
the effect of the most graceful part of these mon-
uments, by crowning the apex, which should of
course terminate in a point, with stars, rays,
or other whimsical additions ; and, however habit
may have reconciled the eye to such a monstrosity,
every one who understands the beauty of form,
and the harmony of lines, must observe and regret
the incongruity of balls and weather-cocks on our
own spires.
Pliny* says, that the first Egyptian king who
erected an obelisk was Mitres, who held his
court at Heliopolis, the city of the Sun, the deity
to whom they were said to have been dedicated.!
Many others were raised by different monarchs,
and " Ramises** made one 99 feet in height, " on
which he employed 20,000 workmen." " And,
* Plin. xxxvi. 8.
f At Heliopolis ; but in other places to other deities, as at Thebes to
Amnn, the god of that city.
334f THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
fearing lest the engineer should not take sufficient
care to proportion the power of the machinery to
the weight he had to raise, he ordered his own
son to be bound to the apex, more effectually to
guarantee the safety of the monument."*
The same writer describes a method of transporting
obelisks from the quarries down the river, by lash-
ing two flat-bottomed boats together, side by side,
which were admitted into a trench, cut from the
Nile to the place where the stone lay, laden with
a quantity of ballast exactly equal to the weight of
the obelisk ; which, so soon as they had been intro-
duced beneath the transverse block, was all taken
out ; and the boats rising, as they were lightened,
bore away the obelisk in lieu of their previous
burden. But we are uncertain if this method
was adopted by the Egyptians ; and though he
mentions it as the invention of one Phoenix, he
fails to inform us at what period he lived.
No insight, as I have already observed, is given
into the secrets of their mechanical knowledge,
from the sculptures, or paintings of the tombs,
though so many subjects are there introduced.
Our information, connected with this point, is
confined to the use of levers, and a sort of crane ;
which last is mentioned by Herodotus, in de-
scribing the mode of raising the stones from one
tier to another, when they built the pyramids.
He says it was made of short pieces of woodt ; —
an indefinite expression, conveying no notion
* Plin. xxxvi. 9. f Herod, li. 125.
CHAP. X,
MACHINERY.
MASONS.
335
either of its form or principle; — and every stone
was raised to tlie succeeding tier by a different
machine.
Diodorus tells us*, that machines were not in-
vented at that early period, and that the stone was
raised by mounds or inclined planes ; but we may
be excused for doubting his assertion, and thus be
relieved from the effort of ima":ininff an inclined
plane five hundred feet in perpendicular height,
with a proportionate base.
It is true, that the occupations of the mason and
Part I.
No. S9I.
4 5
Part 1. levelling, and Part 2. squaring a stone.
Figs. 2, 4, 6, are using the chisel and mallet.
* Diodor. i. 63,
T/iebei.
336
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
the Statuary are sometimes alluded to in the paint-
ings ; the former, liowever, are almost confined to
No 392 Parti. I^rge sitting colossus of granite, which they are polishing.
Part. 2. Standing figure of a king, and, like the former, painted to represent granite.
Figs. 8 10. 11. are polishing it ; and figs. C>. and 7, painting and sculpturing the hiero-
glyphics at the back. T/iehes.
CHAP. X. MACHINERY. MASONS. 337
the levelling or squaring a stone, and the use of the
chisel. Some are represented polishing and paint-
ing statues of men, sphinxes, and small figures;
and two instances occur of large granite colossi,
surrounded with scaffolding*, on which men are
engaged in chiseling and polishing the stone ; the
painter following the sculptor to colour the hiero-
glyphics he has engraved at the back of the statue.
The usual mode of cutting large blocks from -
the quarries was by a number of metal wedges,
which were struck at the same instant along
its whole length ; sometimes, however, they
seem to have been of highly dried wood, which
being driven into holes previously cut for them
by a chisel, and then saturated with water, split
the stone by their expansion ; and the troughs
frequently found along the whole line of the holes,
where the wedges were inserted, argue strongly in
favour of this opinion.
Such a method could only be adopted when the
wedges were in an horizontal position, upon the
upper surface of the stone ; but those put into
the sides were impelled by the hammer only.
To separate the lower part of a ponderous
mass from the rock, we may suppose they cut
under it, leaving long pieces here and there to sup-
port it, like beams, which traversed its whole depth
from the front to the back ; and then having intro-
duced wooden rafters into the open spaces which
were cleared away, they removed the remainder
of the stone, and the block rested on the wood.
* Vide wood-cut, No. 392.
VOL. III. 2
338 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
Some have imagined that tliey used the same
means now practised in India, of hghting a fire
along the whole length of the mass, in the direction
where they intended it should split; and then
pouring water upon it^ cracked the stone in that
part by its sudden action : but this is very doubt-
ful, and the presence of the holes for the wedges
sufficiently proves the method they usually em-
ployed.
INVENTIONS.
Among the remarkable inventions of a remote
era among the Egyptians, may be mentioned
bellows and siphons. The former were used at
least as early as the reign of Thothmes III. the
contemporary of Moses, being represented in a
tomb bearing the name of that Pharaoh. They
consisted of a leather bag, secured and fitted into
a frame, from which a long pipe extended, for
carrying the wind to the fire. They were worked
by the feet, the operator standing upon them, with
one under each foot, and pressing them alter-
nately, while he pulled up each exhausted skin
with a string he held in his hand. In one instance
we observe from the painting, that wlien the man
left the bellows, they were raised, as if full of air*;
and this would imply a knowledge of the valve.
It is uncertain when bellows were first invented;
the earliest contrivance of this kind was pro-
bably a mere reed or pipe ; which we find used by
* J'ide wood-cut, No. 39.3. k, o.
CHAP. X. BKLLOWS AND SIPHONS.
339
m n o 5
No. 393. Bellows. Thebes.
a, b, k, 0, the leather case, c, e, I, n, the pipes conveying the wind to the fire, d, m, the fire.
k, q, charcoal, k and o, are raised as if full of air.
goldsmiths in the age of Osirtasen *, and also at a
late period, after the invention of bellows ; and the
tubes of these last appear even in the time of
Thothmes III. to have been simply of reed, tipped
with a metal point, to resist the action of the fire.
In process of time the sack containing the air was
added, and various improvements succeeded each
other in the form and principle of the bellows ;
there are, however, no means of ascertaining the
period when they assumed their present form ;
and the merit of the late invention of wooden
bellows is still disputed. Strabo ascribes the
* It does not follow from the use of the pipe at Bcni Ha,ssan, that
bellows were unknown at that period, because it continued to be used
long after the time of Thothmes. Vide wood-cut, No. 374.
z 2
340 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
bellows* to Anacliarsis, but with the evident con-
viction that these, the double anchor, and the
potter's wheel f, were of an age far anterior to the
Scythian philosopher ; which is fully proved by
the paintings at Thebes.
The ordinary hand-bellows, now used for small
fires in Egypt, are a sort of bag made of the skin
of a kid, with an opening at one end (like the
mouth of a common carpet bag), where the skin
is sewed upon two pieces of wood ; and these being
pulled apart by the hands, and closed again, the bag
is pressed down, and the air thus forced through
the pipe at the other end. It is, perhaps, an ancient
invention, but I find no indication of it in the
paintings.
The bellows with sides of wood, made at the
present day, are a more perfect construction than
these last, or the foot-bellows of the time of
Thothmes. They are supposed to have been
known to the Greeks, though I confess, the
" taurinis foUibus auras
Accipiunt redduntque "
of Virgil t, is rather calculated to convey the idea
of bellows made of ox leather §, without wooden
sides.
Siphons are shown to have been invented in Egypt,
at least, as early as the reign of Amunoph II. 1450
years before our era ; and they again occur in the
* Strabo. vii. p. 209. " lAonvpa" t Seneca, Ep. 90. Plin. vii. 56.
X Virg. Georg. iv. 171. Vide Herodot. i 68.
§ Beckmann says " that bulls' leather," which Virgil mentions, " is
unfit for bellows, and that ox or cow leather can only be used for that
purpose." Vol. I. p. 104-.
CHAP. X.
BELLOWS AND SIPHONS.
341
paintings of the third Remeses. In a tomb at
Thebes bearing the name of Amunoph, their use
is unequivocally pointed out, by one man pouring
a liquid into some vases, and the other drawing it
off, by applying the siphon to his mouth, and
thence to a large vase ; and it is not improbable
2 1
No. 394. Siphons used in the year 1450 b. c. Thebes.
1 pours a liquid into vases from the cup b ; and 2 draws it off by the siphons a.
that they owed their invention to the necessity of
allowing the Nile water to deposit its thick sedi-
ment in vases, which could not be moved without
again rendering it turbid, whether by inclining
the vessel, or dipping a cup into it with the hand. -
Julius Pollux says they were used for tasting
wine * ; and Heron of Alexandria, the first writer
of consequence who mentions them, and who lived
under Ptolemy Evergetes II., shows them to have
been employed as hydraulic machines, on a grand
scale, for draining lands, or conveying water over a
* Jul. Poll. Onom. vi. 2. iiiul x. 20.
z 3
34^ THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
hill from one valley to another. Their name,
siphon, is evidently oriental, and derived from the
word siph or sif, to *' imbibe," or " draw up with
the breath," analogous to, and the origin of, our
own expression *' to sip."
Of the numerous inventions to which the Egypt-
ians may lay claim, we learn little from the works
of ancient authors ; but their skill in various
branches of art are highly extolled by those * who
visited, or were acquainted with, the country.
Herodotus t ascribes the origin of geometry to the
necessity of ascertaining every successive year the
quantity of land, increased, or diminished, by acci-
dents arising from the inundation of the Nile ;
which is, indeed, not inconsistent with reason : but
the historian is wrong in limiting the date of land
surveying to the age of Sesostris, since it was evi-
dently known long before his time ; and so ancient
did the Egyptians consider it, that they ascribed
its invention to Thoth.t
Anticlides pretends that Moeris was the first to
lay down the elements of that science, which he
says was perfected by Pythagoras ; but the latter
observation is merely the result of the vanity of
the Greeks, which claimed for their countrymen,
(as in the case of Thales, and many other instances,)
the credit of enlightening a people on the very
* Diodorus (i. 74.) says that the arts were carried to a higher degree
of perfection and excellence among the Egyptians than any other people ;
which he ascrihes to the artisans being confined to their own occu-
pations- The Chinese have shown that, like many other ideas, this is
plausible in theory, but bad in practice.
f Herodot.ii. "l02, X ?•"*« in Phaedro.
CHAP. X. INVENTIONS. 343
subjects which they had visited Egypt for the pur-
pose of studying.
The discovery of the pole, the sundial, and the
division of the day into twelve hours, are said by
Herodotus to have been derived by the Greeks
from the Babylonians. Of the two former we have
no indication in the sculptures, to prove the epoch
when they w^ere known in Egypt ; but there is rea-
son to believe, that the day and night were divided,
each into twelve hours, by the Egyptians, some
centuries before that idea could have been im-
parted to the Greeks from Babylon. *
Sufficient data cannot, of course, be expected
from the sculptures of the tombs, and the accidental
introduction of their occupations, to enable us to
form an accurate opinion respecting the extent of
their knowledge, the variety of their inventions,
or the skill of their workmen in different branches
of art. The objects buried with the dead were
frequently mere models of those they used ; and
the pains taken in making them depended on the
sums expended by the friends of the deceased,
after his death. It was left to their good inten-
tions, or their superstitious feelings, to decide of
what quality they should be, or what labour
should be bestowed upon them ; and if the kind
regards of a friend frequently induced some to
incur considerable expense in providing such ob-
jects, many, on the other hand, were less scru-
* It is remarkable that no mention of hours is made in the Bible till
the time of Daniel. Dan. iii. 6. The Hebrew word is ^^® Sah, as in
Arabic.
z 4
344 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
pulous in the last duties to their departed relative.
The former purchased ornaments of the most costly
materials, as agate*, basalt, granite, alabaster, onyx,
jasper, gold, and precious stones ; the latter were
contented with common porcelain, wax, limestone,
or wood. But even the best which have been
found in the tombs, are evidently of inferior quality j
and like their vases, and chairs, none have been
discovered equal in beauty to those represented in
the paintings, with the exception of a few rings and
some female ornaments, which had been actually
worn by the deceased.
The paintings, again, indicate a very small portion
of their inventions : many, with which we know
they were acquainted, are omitted ; and the same
remark applies to some of their most common
occupations, to the animals they kept, and to the
ordinary productions of their country. No exact
notion can even be formed of their costume and
the dresses of various grades, either among
meii or women, though so frequently represented ;
partly owing to their conventional style of drawing
figures, partly to their want of skill in depict-
ing drapery ; which, as I have observed, was
merely added to the figure, without forming part
of the subject described ; it is therefore only the
most simple portion of their dress which can be
understood.
DRESSES.
Ordinary workmen, and indeed all the lower
* So called from Achate a river in Sicily. Theophr. § 38.
CHAP. X.
THEIR DRESSES.
34^5
orders, were clad in a sort of apron, or kelt, some-
times simply bound round the loins, and lapping
over in front*; and others had short drawers,
No. 395.
Men's Dresses. 13 a shirt from the work of Prof. Rosellini.
extending halfway to the knee.t The same kind
of apron was worn by the higher orders, under
* Vide wood -cut, No. 393.
f Vide wood-cut, No. 354. /g. 1. a. and/g. 2. es,
346 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
an ample dress of fine linen, reaching to the
ankles*, and provided with large sleeves.t The
apron was generally fastened by a girdle, or by a
sort of sash, tied in front in a bow or knott : it was
sometimes folded over, with a centre-piece falling
down in front, beneath the part where it over-
lapped ; and some of the poor classes, while en-
gaged in laborious occupations, were contented
with a roll of linen passed between the legs, from
the back to the front of the girdle § ; which is
frequently used at this day by the peasants, when
drawing water by the shadoof.
Herodotus mentions || some Egyptian dresses,
which he describes of linen, with a fringe on the
border around the legs, called cala.siris ; over
which they wore a cloak of white wool, similar,
no doubt, to the hornous% of the present day, so
common in Egypt and the coast of Barbary. I
never remember seeing this cloak represented, ex-
cept in the dresses worn by the captives of the Rot-
n-no**, who appear to have something of the kind
over their inner garments.
The same custom of edging their dresses with
fringes was common to the Israelites, who were
orderedtt to make them *' in the borders of their
garments ; " "a blue riband*' being " put upon the
fringe." These fringes, as already observed, were
* Vide wood-cut, No. 279. fgs. 5, 6. and pi. 12. Jig. 14.
f Vide wood-cut, No. 3-11. and 116. fig. 5.
t Vide wood-cut, No. 78. Vol. II. p. 10.
§ Vide wood-cut, No. 395. fg. 7. || Herodot. ii. 81.
f The bornous is a woollen cloak, open in front, and buttoned over
the breast. It has a hood.
** Vide woodcut. No. 72. Vol. I. p. 403.
ft Numb. XV. 38.
CHAP. X. CLOAKS AND SHIRTS. 347
only the ends of the threads composing the woof,
left m order to prevent the cloth unravelling ; and
the blue riband added by the Israelites, was in-
tended to strengthen it, and prevent its tearing.
I have noticed the woollen cloak*, and the
prohibition which Herodotus says was issued
against their wearing it, when they entered a temple,
or being buried in cloths of that quality ; and I
have also observed, that though cotton garments
were sometimes used, the preference was given to
linen, which was considered more conducive to
cleanliness and health. With regard to the cala-
siris mentioned by Herodotus, it does not appear
that they were very generally used ; but dresses
are occasionally represented in the paintings with
a fringe t, and pieces of cloth have been found in the
tombs with this kind of border.
Some wore a sort of shirt with loose or tight
sleeves, open at the neck, where it was tied with
strings t ; and except that it was of linen, instead
of wool, it was not unlike the bisht of the modern
inhabitants of Upper Egypt.
The dresses of the priests and persons of rank
consisted of an under garment, similar to the apron
already mentioned, and a loose upper robe with
full sleeves, secured by a girdle round the loins ;
or of the apron, and a shirt with short tight sleeves,
over which was thrown a loose robe, leaving the
right arm exposed. § Sometimes a priest, when
officiating in the temple, laid aside the upper
* Vol. I. p. 280.
t Vide wood-ciit, No. 396. 1. 7. 9. ; and 398. 1.
j Vide woodcut, No, 90., fg. 5. Vol. II. p. 46., and No. 387.
<^ Vide wood-cut, No. 'HI. Jig. 1.
S18
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
Dresses of Priests.
8, 9, hierogrammat, or sacred scribe.
vesture, and was satisfied to wear an ample robe
bound round the waist, which descended over the
apron to his ancles ; and occasionally he put on a
long full garment, reaching from below the arms to
the feet, and supported over the neck with straps.*
Others again, in the sacred processions, were entirely
covered with a dress of this kind, reaching to the
throat, and concealing even the hands and arms.t
The costume of the hierogrammat, or sacred scribe,
consisted of a large kelt or apron, either tied in
front, or wound round the lower part of the body ;
and the loose upper robe with full sleeves, which,
in all cases, was of the finest linen : he had some-
* Wood-cut, No. 396./g.'t. f Vide v/oodcut, 'Ho. 396. Jig. 5.
CHAP. X.
DRESS OF PRIESTS.
349
times one or two feathers on his head, as described
by Clement of Alexandria* and Diodorus.t
The hieraphori, when bearing the sacred em-
blems, wore a long full apron reaching to the
ankles, tied in front with long bands, and a strap,
also of linen, passed over the shoulder to support
itt; but they had no upper robe on these occa-
sions. Sometimes a priest who offered incense was
clad in this long apron, and the full robe with
sleeves ; sometimes only in the former : and the
^o.39T Princes and Children. Thehes.
1, head-dress of a prince. 2, and 3, lock of hair worn by children. 4, dress of a son
of Remeses III. 5, head-dress of a prince, Remeses.
dresses of the others in like manner varied on
different occasions.
* " The Hierogrammat walks first, having feathers on his head, and
a book in his hand." Clem. Alex. Str. 5, 6.
f Diodor. i. 87. " The sacred scribes wear a purple fillet and hawk's
feather on their head." Vide woodcut, No. 396. fg. 0.
t Vide woodcut, No. 396./g. 6.
350 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
The princes wore a dress very like that of the
sacred scribe, the apron wound round the body,
and divided into three different folds, over which
was a garment with large sleeves j but their dis-
tinguishing mark was a peculiar badge at the side
of the head, descending to the shoulder, and fre-
quently adorned and terminated with a gold fringe.
This, I suppose, to have contained the lock of hair,
indicative of youth, which is seen in the statues of
Harpocrates, and frequently represented on the heads
of children. For though the Egyptians were shaved,
and wore wigs and other coverings to the head, chil-
dren were allowed to leave certain locks of hair*;
and if the sons of the king, long before they arrived
at the age of manhood, had abandoned this youth-
ful custom, the badge was attached to their head-
dress as an emblem of their rank as princes ; or
really to show they had not, during the life time of
their father, arrived at kinghood ; on the same
principle that a Spanish prince, of whatever age,
continues to be styled an " infant."
I have already noticed t those priests who wore
a leopard skin ; which some have mistaken for that
of the nebris or fawn, and improperly ascribed to
Bacchus. It was generally thrown over their dress j
its fore-legs sometimes made to form sleeves for
the arms : and the robes worn beneath it varied at
different times. It was usually confined to the
high-priests, who superintended the sacrifices, and
processions of the sacred boats or arks ; who pre-
* Vide wood-cuts, No. 397. Jig. 3. No. 402. and No. 195./^, 2.
t Vol. I. p. 279.
CHAP. X. DRESS OF THE KING. 351
sented the offerings at the altar of the gods, and at
the funerals of individuals ; or who anointed the
king at his coronation : and the same badge was as-
sumed by the monarch when officiating on similar
occasions.
The robes of the sovereign varied, of course,
according to his immediate occupation. When
engaged as high-priest, they much resembled those
worn by the principal functionaries of the sacer-
dotal order, with the exception of the apron
and head-dress, which were of peculiar form, and
belonged exclusively to his rank as king.
This apron was richly ornamented in front with
lions' heads, and other devices, probably of coloured
leather ; and the border was frequently formed of
a row of asps, the emblems of royalty. Sometimes
the royal name, with an asp on each side, as sup-
porters, was embroidered upon it, the upper part
being divided into square compartments of dif-
ferent colours ; but it is not improbable, that this
formed an appendage to the girdle, rather than to
the apron j and several straps falling down at the
side of the centre-piece, show that it was tied in
front, and came over the folds of the apron, and
even of the upper robes.
The headdress of the king, on state occasions, was
the crown of the upper or of the lower country, or the
pshent, the union of the two. Every king, after
the sovereignty of the Thebai'd and Lower Egypt *
had become once more vested in the same person,
* Vide xupra, p. 283.
352
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
No. 398. Dress of the King.
2,3, the kings apron. 3, is from a statue of Amunoph III. in the museum at Alnwick
Castle. 4, wreath of the crown of Sabaco's statue at the Isle of Argo.
put on this double crown at his coronation ; and
we find in the grand representation given of this
ceremony at Medeenet Haboo, that the principal
feature of the proclamation, on his ascension to the
throne, was the announcement to the four sides" of
the world, that *' Remeses had put on the crown of
the upper and lower country."
I have already noticed this interesting subject*,
and should not have failed to introduce a copy of
it here, if the size of this work had not been too
limited. I hope, however, to be able, at a future
time, to present it with several other curious sculp-
* Egypt and Thebes, p. 63. ; and supra, p. 288. 289.
CHAP. X. HEAD-DRESS OF THE KING. 353
tures, in a form better suited to them, to which I
shall refer the reader.
He even wore his crown during the heat of
battle*, like the kings of olden days in Europe;
sometimes merely a wig ; but a helmet t made
apparently of woollen stuff with a thick nap, not
very unlike the modern Persian cap, was generally
preferred ; and, in religious ceremonies, he put on
a striped head-dress, probably of linen, which
descended in front over the breast, and termi-
nated behind in a sort of queue bound with
riband. t
When crowned, the king invariably put on the
two crowns at the same time, though on other
occasions he was permitted to wear each separately,
whether in the temple, the city, or the field of
battle ; and he even appeared in his helmet § during
the ceremonies in honour of the gods. On some
occasions he wore a short wig, on which a band
was fastened, ornamented with an asp, the emblem
of royalty. 1 1
It may appear singular, that so warm a covering
to the head should have been adopted in the climate
of Egypt ; but when we recollect that they
* For the head-dress and costumes of soldiers, vide Vol. I. p, 329,
ct seq.
f The Egyptian helmet had no crest. I have mentioned the origin
of crests in Vol. I. p. 331. The Greek crest was copied from the mane
of a horse; and in illustration of this we frequently find the scales or
cheek-pieces of the helmet made to imitate the ears of that animal, which,
when raised and turned up, project from the upper part on either side.
Conf. Homer, i. 382., the helmet of Achilles with a horse's taii,"t7r7roi'|Oif
Tpv(pa\tia ;" and Virg. ^n. x. 369. "cristaque hirsutus equina."
t Vide wood-cut. No. 399. Jig. 13.
§ Conf. Herodot. ii. 151. vide Vol. I. p. H*.
II Vide woodcut. No. 399, Jig. 1 1.
VOL. III. A A
354,
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
No. 399. Head-dresses.
1, a close cap. 2, 3, 4, J, wigs. 0, the crown of the upper and lower country, or
9 and 8 united. 10 to H, royal head-dresses 15, beard of a god. 15, of a king.
17, of a private individual of rank.
always shaved the head, and that the reticulated
texture of the groundwork, on which the hair
was fastened, allowed the heat of the head to
escape, while the hair effectually protected it from
the sun, it is evident that no better covering could
have been devised, and that it far surpassed in
CHAP. X.
WIGS.
S55
comfort and coolness the modern turban ; which
is always found by those who are in the habit of
wearing it, to be very agreeable in hot weather,
provided all the particulars are attended to, which
the Turks find so essential, but which those Eu-
ropeans who merely put it on for effect, too often
neglect.
The upper portion of the wig was frequently made
with curled, and not with plaited hair, this last
being confined to the sides and lower part, as
is the case in the wigs preserved in the British and
Berlin museums ; but the whole was sometimes
composed of a succession of plaits, commencing
from the centre of the crown, extending down-
wards, and increasing in length towards the bottom.
No. 400. Front and back of an Egyptian wig in the British Miiscnin.
3, shows the appearance of the long plaits, a. a.
Some smaller wigs, worn by persons of rank,
consisted of short locks of equal length, arranged
in uniform lines; imitations of which appear to
A A 2
356
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
have been made in woollen or other stuffs, under
the denomination of false wigs, for the use of those
who could not afford the more expensive quality of
real hair.
No.401.
Wig, about 2| feet in length, seen in front.
Berlin Museum.
Wigs were worn both within the house and
out of doors, like the turban of the present
day ; and a priest might even officiate on some
occasions in his wig. At parties, the head-
dress of every guest was bound with a chaplet
of flowers, and ointment * was put upon the top of
the wig, as if it had really been the hair of the
headt ; and one instance occurs of a wreath of leaves
placed round the crown of a king, on a statue of
* Vide Athen. xv. 13. and Juvenal, Sat. xv. 30.
" Unguenta, et flores, niulta;qus in fronte coronae."
t Vklc Vol. II. p. 2 U. 218,
CHAP. X. SHAVING THE HEAD AND BEARD. 357
Sabaco, in Ethiopia, precisely similar to those
worn by the Romans.*
The Egyptians, says Herodotus, " only let the
hair of their headt and beard grow in mourning,
being at all other times shaved t ;" which agrees
perfectly with the authority of the Bible §, and of
the sculptures. So particular, indeed, were they on
this point, that to have neglected it was a subject
of reproach and ridicule ; and whenever they in-
tended to convey the idea of a man of low con-
dition, or a slovenly person, the artists represented
him with a beard. || It is amusing to find that
their love of caricature was not confined to the
lower orders, but extended even to the king ; and
the negligent habits of Remeses VII. are indicated
in his tomb at Thebes, by the appearance of his
chin, blackened by an unshorn beard of two or
three days' growth. But it was likewise given as
the test of hardships undergone in a severe cam-
paign ; and the warlike character of Remeses the
Great is pointed out in the same manner.
The Egyptians did not confine the privilege of
shaving to freeborn citizens, like the Romans,
wlio obliged slaves to wear their beards and hair
long, and only permitted them the use of a cap %
* Vide supra, p. 352. wood-cut, No, 398,, fg. 4.
-f- Diodorus states, that they suffered the hair to grow when on a
journey; but this was probably on accomplishing a vow, Diod.
i, 18,
t Herodot, ii. 36. and iii. 12.
§ Gen. xli. 14. Joseph, when sent for by Pharaoh from prison,
" shaved himself, and changed liis raiment."
II Vide wood-cut, No. 115. Vol. II. p. 127.
i Liviiis, xlv. 44. *' Pileatum, capite raso . . . . libertum."
A A 3
358 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
after they had been enfranchised: and though
foreigners, who were brought to Egypt as slaves,
had beards on their arrival in the country, we find
that so soon as they were employed in the service
of this civilised people, they were obliged to con-
form to the cleanly habits of their masters ; their
beards and heads were shaved ; and they adopted
a close cap.
The priests were remarkable for their love of
cleanliness, which was carried so far, that they
shaved the whole body every three days, and per-
formed frequent daily ablutions, bathing twice a
day and twice during the night.* It was not
confined to their order ; every Egyptian prided him-
self on the encouragement of habits, which it was
considered a disgrace t to neglect : we can, there-
fore, readily account for the disgust they felt on
seeing the squalid appearance and unrefined habits
of their Asiatic neighbours, whose long beards
were often the subject of ridicule to the Egyptian
soldier ; and for their abhorrence of the bearded
and long-haired Greeks ; which was so great, that,
according to Herodotus t, *' no Egyptian of either
sex would on any account kiss the lips of a Greek,
make use of his knife, his spit and cauldron, or
taste the meat of an animal which had been slaugh-
tered by his hand." The same habits of cleanliness
are also indicated by the " changes of raiment *'
* Herod, ii, 37. Porphyry says thrice a day, and a nocturnal ablution
occasionally.
t Herod, ii. 37. Plut. de Is. s. 3.
I Herod, ii. 41. and 91.
CHAP. X. BEARDS SHAVED. 359
given by Joseph* to his brethren, when they set
out to fetch their father to Egypt.
Barbers may be considered the offspring of civil-
isation ; and as a Roman youth, when arrived
at the age of manhood, cut off his beard, and
consecrated it to some deity, as a token of his
having emerged from a state of childhood, so a
people, until they have adopted the custom of
shaving, may be supposed to retain a remnant of
their early barbarism.
The Romans, at first, like other people, allowed
their beards to grow, until about 454 years after
the building of the city (299 b.c), when P. Ticinius
Mena, having brought barbers from Sicily, intro-
duced the custom at Rome ; and, as Pliny states f,
" Scipio Africanus was the first Roman who shaved
every day." They resembled the Egyptians rather
than the Greeks in this respect, and in the habit of
allowing the hair of the headt and beard to grow in
mourning ; the Greeks, on the contrary, shaving
themselves on those occasions.
The prejudice of these last in favour of long hair§
seems to be retained to the present day ; for though
the modern Greeks have adopted a moslem custom,
and wear the redjhz of the coast of Barbary, they
have remained insensible to the comfort and clean-
liness of shaving, and have preferred the incon-
* Gen. xlv. 22, " To all of them he gave each man changes of raiment ;
but to Benjamin he gave three hundred pieces of silver, and five changes
of raiment."
t Plin. vii. 59.
j And in youth : whence children are called " Capillatos " by
Petronius Arbiter (Satyr.) Vide Martial. Epigr. Ixii, lib. 10.
§ Conf. Homer, 11. ii. 11. " (capjjKo/uowi/raf A;^«ioi)e," viii. .53., &c.
Apollo was represented with long hair. Vide 1 Cor. xi. 1 4'.
A A 4
360 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X
sistency of covering the head with a close cap*,
and cherishing the growth of long hair.
With the Egyptians it was customary to shave
the heads even of young children, leaving only
certain locks t at the front, sides, and back ; and
those of the lower classes were allowed to go out
in the sun with the head exposed, without the
protection of a cap ; which is the reason assigned by
Herodotus $ for the hardness of the Egyptian
skulls, compared with those of other people. *' I
became acquainted," says the historian, '* with a
remarkable fact, which was pointed out to me by
the people living in the neighbourhood of the field
of battle, where the Egyptians and the army of
Cambyses fought ; the bones of the killed being
still scattered about, those of the Persians on one
side, and of the Egyptians on the other. I ob-
served that the skulls of the former were so soft, that
you could perforate them with a small pebble ; while
those of the latter were so strong, that with difficulty
you could break them with a large stone. The
reason of which, as they told me, and I can rea-
dily believe it, is that, the Egyptians being in the
habit of shaving their heads from early youth, the
bone becomes thickened : and hence, too, they are
never bald ; for, certainly, of all countries, no
where do you see fewer bald people than in Egypt.
The Persians, on the contrary, have soft skulls, in
consequence of their keeping the head covered
from the sun, and enveloped in soft caps. I also
* The Greeks ridicule and abhor our unbecoming hats, but there is
not the same objection to them on the score of cleanhness.
■f As with the Chinese, and modern Egyptians, fide wood-cut '
No, 195. Jig. 2. ' X Herod, iii. 12.
CHAP. X. SHAVING THE HEAD. 36l
observed the same of those who were killed in
the battle between Achsemenes and Inarus the
Libyan."
It was usual for the lower orders to work in
the sun without any covering to the head, as the
modern peasants of Egypt, who appear to inherit
from their predecessors skulls of uncommon hard-
ness ; and we see the same class of persons repre-
sented in the paintings with and without a cap,
whether in the house or in the open field.
Herodotus says*, when the Egyptians perform
their vows, they shave the heads of their chil-
dren, either entirely, or half, or only a third ;
and putting the hair and some silver into a pair of
scales, dedicate an equal weight of the latter to the
animal which is sacred to the deity they invoke.
This does not, however, imply that they left the
whole head unshaven ; and the hair to which he
refers was probably the long pendent locks repre-
sented in the Theban sculptures.
Persons of all classes occasionally wore caps,
some of which were large, others fitting tight to
the head ; but these last were considered far less
becoming than the wig, and suited rather to the
lower orders than to persons of rank. Women
always wore their own hairf, and they were not
shaved even in mourning, or after death.
The use of wigs was not confined to the Egyp-
tians of all people of antiquity ; the Romans,
under the emperors, also adopted a sort of pe-
ruke, called capiUamentwn or galerus^ though it
seems rather to have been w^orn by women than
* Herod, ii. 65. f Vide 1 Cor. xi. G.
36^ THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X-
men ; and Juvenal* describes Messalina putting
on a wig of flaxen hair to conceal her own black
locks, when she left the palace in disguise.
The most singular custom of the Egyptians was
that of tying a false beard upon the chin, which
was made of plaited hair, and of a peculiar form, ac-
cording to the person by whom it was worn. Private
individuals had a small beard, scarcely two inches
long; that of a king was of considerable length,
square at the bottom ; and the figures of gods were
distinguished by its turning up at the end. No
man ventured to assume, or affix to his image, the
beard of a deity ; but after their death, it was per-
mitted to substitute this divine emblem on the
statues of kings, and all other persons who were
judged worthy of admittance to the Elysium of
futurity ; in consequence of their having assumed
the character of Osiris, to whom the souls of the
pure returned, on quitting their earthly abode.
The form of the beard, therefore, readily distin-
guishes the figures of gods and kings, in the sacred
subjects of the temples ; and the allegorical con-
nection between the sphinx and the monarch is
pointed out by its having the kingly beard, as well
as the crown, and other symbols of royalty.
The dresses of children of the lower classes were
very simple ; and as Diodorus t informs us, the
expenses incurred in feeding and clothing them
amounted to a mere trifle. ** They feed them," he
says, " very lightly, and at an incredibly small cost ;
* Juven. Sat. vi. 120. " Et nigrum flavo crineni abscondente galero."
t Diodor. i. 80.
CHAP. X.
DRESSES OF CHILDREN.
363
giving them a little meal of the coarsest and cheapest
kind, the pith of the papyrus, baked under the ashes,
with the roots and stalks of some marsh weeds, either
raw, boiled, or roasted ; and since most of them are
brought up, on account of the mildness of the cli-
mate, without shoes, and, indeed, without any other
clothing *, the whole expense incurred by the pa-
rents does not exceed 20 drachmae (13 shillings)
each ; and this frugality is the true reason of the
populousness t of Egypt." But the children of the
higher orders were often dressed like grown persons,
with a loose robe, reaching to the ankles, and
sandals, t
Infants do not appear to have been swaddled,
as among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. When
too young to walk, if taken out by a mother or
nurse, they were carried in a shawl, suspended at
her back, or before her ; a custom still retained
No. 402.
9. 4 5
Women carrying their children in a funeral procession.
Thebes.
by the women of the Moghrebin Arabs ; and in
Ethiopia they were carried in baskets, supported
* Vule wood-cut. No. \95.fig.2. and No, 402.
f Pliny might attribute it to the Egyptian women having occasionally
seven children at a birth. He gives his authority, Trogus Cvii. 3.).
t Hrfe plate 12./g. 1.
364 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
at the mother's back by a band passmg over her
forehead.*
Sometimes, though nearly or entirely naked, the
neck of an Egyptian child was decorated with a
string of beads ; and occasionally a bullae or charm,
was suspended in the centre, representing the
symbol of truth and justice, which has been sup-
posed also to indicate the heart, and is usually found
in the balance of the judgment scenes, as a repre*
sentative of the good works of the deceased. A
julla of this kind was worn by the youthful deity
Harpocrates. t
It was probably of gold, or hard stone, like those
of the Romanst ; and others worn by the poorer
classes, as at Rome, and in modern Egypt, were
of leather. They were supposed to prompt the
wearer to virtue and wisdom, to keep off the evil
eye, or to avert misfortune ; and superstition
induced many to appeal to them in danger, and
derive from them omens of forthcoming events.
Sometimes a charm consisted of a written piece of
papyrus tightly rolled up, and sewed into a covering
of linen, or other substance, several of which have
been found at Thebes ; and emblems of various
deities were appended to necklaces for the same
purpose.
Ladies and men of rank paid great attention to
the beauty of their sandals : but on some occasions
* Vide wood-cut. No. 73. Vol. I. p. 404.
f Vide my Materia Hieroglyphica, Pimtheon, plate ll.Jlg. 3.
J The Roman and Etruscan children had sometimes three or four
bullas, as we see from statues that have been found. Conf. Virg. Mn.
xii. 942. Plin. (xxxiii. i.) explains who wore the golden bulla, and
who the leathern lorum. Vide Juv. Sat. xiii. 33., and Pers. Sat. v,
31. &c.
CHAP. X.
SANDALS.
365
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366
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
those of the middle classes who were in the habit of
wearing them, preferred walking barefooted ; and,
in religious ceremonies, the priests frequently took
them off, while performing their duties in the
temple.
The sandals varied slightly in form ; those worn
by the upper classes, and by women, were usually
pointed and turned up at the end, like our skaits,
and many Eastern slippers of the present day.
Some had a sharp flat point, others were nearly
round. They were made of a sort of woven, or
interlaced work, of palm leaves and papyrus stalks,
or other similar materials ; sometimes of leather ;
and were frequently lined within with cloth, on
which the figure of a captive was painted j that
L
No. 404. Sandals. Berlin Museum.
1, from the sculptures. 2, in the Berlin Museum; made of the papyrus.
3, figure of a captive on the sole.
CHAP. X. SANDALS. DRESSES OF WOMEN. 367
humiliating position being considered suited to the
enemies of their country, whom they hated and
despised. An idea agreeing perfectly with the
expression which so often occurs in the hiero-
glyphic legends, accompanying a king's name, when
his valour and victories are recorded on the sculp-
tures : *' You have trodden the impure Gentiles
under your powerful feet." *
Shoes, or low boots, were also common in Egypt,
many having been found at Thebest ; but these I
believe to have been of late date, and to have be-
longed to Greeks ; for, since no persons are repre-
sented in the paintings wearing them, except
foreigners!, we may conclude they were not adop-
ted by the Egyptians, at least in a Pharaonic age.
They were of leather, generally of a green colour ;
laced in front by thongs, which passed through
small loops on either side ; and were principally
used, as in Greece and Etruria, by women.
The dresses of women consisted sometimes of a
loose robe or shirt, reaching to the ankles, with
tight, or full sleeves, and fastened at the neck like
those of the men, with a string ; over which they
wore a sort of petticoat, secured at the waist by
a girdle ; and this, in mourning, while bewailing
the death of a relative, was frequently their only
dress.§
Such was the costume of the lower classes of
women ; and, sometimes indeed, as at the present
* Vtde wood-cut. No. 404-./g. 3.
f Vule wood-cut, No,403./g.s, 1, 2, 3.
:{: Vide \)]ate 14.; and wood-cut No. 64^. Jig. 1.
^ Vide wood-cut, No. 7., Vol. I. p. 236. and Herodot. ii. 85.
368
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
No. 405. Dresses of women.
The sash in figs. 1, and 'J, though represented at the side, is to be understood as tied in
front. In fig. 3, the side hair appears to be fixed by a comb ; and before it, on the
cheek, the short hair is arranged in separate plaits. 4, shows the shirt tied at the neck :
it is a terra cotta statue.
day it consisted mqi-ely of the loose shirt or robe,
without shoes or sandals.
The higher orders wore a petticoat, or gown,
secured at the waist by a coloured sash, or by straps
over the shoulders; and above this was a large loose
robe, made of the finest linen, with full sleeves *,
and tied in front below the breast : and during
some religious ceremonies! the right arm was taken
out of the sleeve, and left exposed as in the funeral
processions. The petticoat or gown was of
richly coloured stuff, presenting a great variety
of patterns, not unlike our modern chintzes, the
* Vide a group of women in plate 4. of my Materia Hierog. part 2. ;
and wood-cut, No. S.Jig. 5.
f Vide wood-cut, No. R. /g.?. 1,2, and 3., Vol. I. p. 260.
CHAP. X. DRESSES OF WOMEN. 369
most elegant of which were selected for the robes
of deities and the dresses of queens.
Slaves or servants were not allowed to wear
the same costume as ladies, and their mode of
dressing the hair was different. They generally
bound it at the back part of the head, into a sort
of loop, or ranged it in one or more long plaits
at the back, and eight or nine similar ones were suf-
fered to hang down at either side of the neck and
face.* They wore a long tight gown, tied at the
neck, with short close sleeves, reaching nearly to the
elbow : and sometimes a long loose robe was thrown
over it, when employed to dance, or to present
themselves on festive occasions.
Ladies wore their hair long, and plaited. The
back part was made to consist of a number
of strings of hair, reaching to the bottom of
the shoulder blades, and on each side other
strings of the same length descended over the
breast. The hair was plaited in the triple plait,
the ends being left loose ; or, more usually, two
or three plaits were fastened together at the ex-
**"• 4^''- Head-dress of a lady, from a mummy case.
* Vule wood-cuts, Nos. 236. and 280,
VOL. III. B B
SyO THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
tremity by woollen string of corresponding colour.
Around the head was bound an ornamental fillet,
with a lotus bud, by way of Jei^oniere, falling over
the forehead ; and the strings of hair, at the sides,
were separated and secured with a comb, or a
band, ornamented in various ways according to the
fancy of the wearer : and occasionally a round
stud, or pin, was thrust into them at the front.
The short hair at the side of the face, which the
ingenuity of ancient Roman*, and modern Euro-
pean ladies, has, by the aid of gum, compelled to
lie in an immovable curve upon the cheek, was
intervoven with several of its longer neighbours ;
and these, being bound together at the end with
string, fell down before the earring which they
partially concealed. Many of the mummies of
women have been found with the hair perfectly
preserved, plaited in the manner I have mentioned ;
the only alteration in its appearance being the
change of its black hue, which became reddened
by exposure to great heat, during the process of
embalming.
The earrings, most usually worn by Egyptian
ladies, were large, round, single hoops t of gold,
from one inch and a half, to two inches and one-
third, in diameter, and frequently of a still greater
size ; or made of six rings soldered together 1^ :
sometimes an asp, whose body was of gold set with
precious stones, was worn by persons of rank, as a
* This little accroche cccur appears in the busts of several Roman
ladies, of the time of the empire.
t Vide wood-cut. No. 412.,/g. 5. and 272.
J Vide wood-cut, No. 412.,/gs. 6 and 7.
CHAP. X. EARRINGS. RINGS. 87!
fashionable caprice ; but it is probable that this
emblem of majesty was usually confined to members
of the royal family.
Earrings of other forms have also been found at
Thebes, but their date is uncertain ; and it is diffi-
cult to say if they are of an ancient Egyptian age,
or of Greek introduction. Of these, the most re-
markable are a dragon*, and another of fancy shape
which is not inelegant.t Some few were of silver,
and plain hoops, like those made of gold already
noticed, but less massive, being of the thickness
of an ordinary ring : at one end was a small opening,
into which the curved extremity of the other caught
after it had been passed through the eart j and others
were in the form of simple studs.§
Women wore many rings, sometimes two and
three on the same finger : the left was considered
the hand || peculiarly privileged to bear those or-
naments ; and it is remarkable, that its third
finger was decorated with a greater number than
any other, and was considered by them, as by
us, par excellence, the ring finger % ; though there
is no evidence of its having been so honoured
at the marriage ceremony.** They even wore a
* Wood-cut, No. 408.^g. 10. not unlike one of the Chinese dragons.
t Vide wood-cut. No. 408. /^g-. 21.
t. Vide wood-cut, No. 412.^o'. 5.
9 Vide woodcut, No. 397./^. 4.
II The same witti the Romans (Plin. xxxiii. i.); they wore rings on
all but the middle finger. This last was preferred by the Gauls and
Britons.
H Vide Plin. xxxiii. 1. Of the fingers on which rings were worn.
" Singulis primo digitis geri nios fuerat, qui sunt minimis proximi."
** Plin. (xxxiii. i.) mentions the iron ring worn by a person be-
trothed : " etiam nunc sponsae annulus ferreus mittitur, isque sine
gemma." He thinks they had no rings in Homer's time. But in
Egypt they were used long before.
B B 52
37^ THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
ring on the thumb ; and I have seen, upon the right
hand of a wooden figure, a ring on the thumb, and
two on the third finger ; and upon the left, one
upon the thumb and Uttle finger ; two on the fore
and second finger ; and three on the third : as may
be seen in the accompanying wood-cut.
No. 407. Hands of a wooden figure of a woman. On thelid of a mummy case in Mr.
Salt's collection, now in the British Museum.
Some rings were simple ; others were made with
a scarabfeus, or an engraved stone ; and they were
occasionally in the form of a snail, a knot, a snake,
or some fancy device. They were mostly of gold ;
and this metal seems to have been always preferred
to silver, for rings, and other articles of jewellery.
Silver rings, however, are occasionally met with ;
and two in my possession, which were accidentally
found in a temple at Thebes, are engraved with
hieroglyphics, containing the name of the royal
city.
Bronze was seldom used for rings. Some have
been discovered of brass *, and iron, (of a Roman
time, as I before observed) t ; but ivory and blue
* I am not sure if the alloy in them is zinc. I suspect it to be gold.
t Chap. ix. p. 23G. Vide Plin. xxxiii. 3. and xxxiii. i. on iron rings.
CHAP. X. RINGS. — > SIGNETS. 373
porcelain were the materials of which those worn
by the lower classes were usually made. The
scarabgeus was the favourite form both for rings,
and the ordinary ornaments of necklaces ; in
some, the stone, flat on both faces, turned on
pins, like many of our seals at the present day ;
and the ring itself was bound round at eacli end,
where it was inserted into the stone, with gold wire.
This was common not only to rings, but to signets,
and was intended for ornament as well as security.
One of the largest signets I have seen, was in
the possession of a French gentleman at Cairo,
which contained twenty pounds' worth of gold.
It consisted of a massive ring, half an inch in
its largest diameter, bearing an oblong plinth, on
which the devdces were engraved *, one inch long,
T^,ths in its greatest, and Toths in its smallest
breadth. On one face was the name of a king,
the successor of Amunoph III., who lived about
B. c, 1400 ; on the other a lion, with the legend
" lord of strength," referring to the monarch : on
one side a scorpion, and on the other a crocodile.
Two cats sitting back to back and looking round
towards each other, with an emblem of the god-
dess Athor between them, seem to have been a
favourite device on gold rings j and I have seen
three or four of this pattern, one of which is in my
possession, t
They also had large gold anklets or bangles t,
* Pliny is wrong in saying, " Non signat oriens, aut iEgyptus etiam
nunc, literis contcnta solis." xxxiii. i.
t Wood-cut, No. iVZ.Jigs. 11, 12.
j Vide Plin. xxxiii. 3.
B B 3
374
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X
No. 408. Rings, signets, bracelets, and enrrings.
Fig. 1. Bronze bracelet, or bangle, in the museiini of Alnwick Castle.
2. Gold bracelet in the Leyden Muse jm, bearing the nrnieof Thothmes III., 1| inch high,
and Sinclies in diameter. 3. Searabaus of amethyst,with a sphinx, emblematicof the king,
trampling on a prostrate enemy ; over it is the expression " Good God, Lord of the world."
4. A gold signet, mentioned in the last page. 5, 6, 7. The three other sides of the plinth.
8. A gold ring. 9. The engraved face of it. 10. A gold earring, about U inch in di-
ameter. 12. A gold ring in my possession four.fifths of an inch in diameter.. 11. The
face of it, of the real size. 13. Gold ring with two asps. 14. A snake bracelet of gold.
15. A stone scarabffus. 16. Gold earring. 17. Gold earring with two pearls, n and i.
18, 19,20. Other gold earrings. 21. Gold earring, 1 inch high, and six-tenths broad.
22, 23. Ring of porcelain, or blue-glazed pottery. Museum of Alnwick Castle.
CHAP. X. NECKLACES. 37^
armlets, and bracelets, frequently inlaid with pre-
cious stones, or enamel : some were in the shape
of snakes, and others as simple rings : and worn
by men as well as women. Kings are often
represented with armlets and bracelets ; and in
the Leyden Museum is a gold one * bearing the
name of the third Thothmes, which was doubtless
once worn by that monarch ; and, without any great
licence of imagination we may suppose it to have
been seen by Moses himself, if Thothmes was the
Pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites, and into
whose presence the Jewish legislator was so often
summoned.
Handsome and richly ornamented necklaces
were a principal part of the dress, both of ment
and women ; and some idea may be formed of the
number of jewels they wore, from those borrowed
by the Israelites at the time of the Exodus, and
by the paintings of Thebes. They consisted of
gold, or of beeds of various qualities, and shapes,
disposed according to fancy : generally with a
large drop, or figure in the centre. Scarabsei,
gold, and cornelian bottles, or the emblems of
goodness and stability, lotus flowers in enamel,
amethysts, pearls, false stones, imitations of fish,
shells, and leaves, with numerous figures, and de-
vices, were strung in all the variety which their
taste could suggest ; and the sole museum of Leyden
possesses an infinite assortment of those objects,
* Vide wood-cut, No. 408. ^g. 2.
f Necklaces and bracelets were worn by the Carthaginians, and by
many Europeans, as the Gauls, Sabines and others. Judah's bracelets
and signet are mentioned in Genesis, xxxviii. 18.
B B 4
37C THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
which were once the pride of the ladies of
Thebes.
Some wore simple gold chains, in imitation of
string, to which a stone scarabseus, set in the same
precious metal, was appended ; but these probably
belonged to men, like the torques of the Romans.*
A set of small cups, or covered saucers, of bronze
gilt, hanging from a chain of the same materials,
were sometimes worn by women ; a necklace of
which has been found, belonging to a Theban lady,
— • offering a striking contrast in their simplicity to
the gold leaves inlaid with lapis lazzuli t, red and
green stones of another she wore : which served,
with many more in her possession, to excite the
admiration of her friends.
The devices engraved on scarabaei, rings, and
other objects of ornamental luxe^ varied according
to the caprice of in dividuals. Rings frequently bore
the name of the wearer ; others of the monarch in
whose reign he lived ; others, again, the emblems of
certain deities ; and many were mere fanciful com-
binations. The greater number consisted of scara-
baei, mounted upon a gold ring passing tlu'ough
them : the scarabseus itself was of green stone,
cornelian, hematite, granite, serpentine, agate,
lapis lazzuli, root of emerald, amethyst, and other
materials ; and a cheaper kind was made of lime-
stone, stained to imitate a harder and dearer quality ;
or of the ordinary blue pottery.
* Pharaoh " put a gold cluiin about (Joseph's) neck," Gen. xli. 42.
and " a ring upon Joseph's hand." Vide wood- cut, No. \Od,fig. M.
t Vide wood-cut. No. 409. f^s. B, I a.
CHAP. X.
« ^i
378 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
THE TOILET. OINTMENTS.
Of the various objects of the toilet, found at
Thebes, and other places, the principal are bottles,
or vases, for holding ointment, and koJil* or col-
lyrium for the eyes, mirrors, combs, and the small
boxes, spoons, and saucers, already mentioned, t
The ointment was scented in various ways, and I
have had occasion to noticed some preserved in the
museum at Alnwick Castle, which has retained its
odour§ several centuries ; and the great || use of
ointment by the Egyptians is sufficiently indicated
in the paintings representing the reception of guests
at their parties.
With the exception of the little found in the
tombs, we have nothing to guide us respecting the
nature of Egyptian ointments. Some appear to
be made with a nut oil ^, but it is probable that
animal, as well as vegetable, grease was employed
for this purpose ; the other ingredients depending
on the taste of the maker, or the purchaser. Julius
Pollux** mentions a black kind made in Egypt,
and speaks of the sag das as an ointment of that
country. Theophrastustt, on the contrary, states
* It has the same name in Hebrew.
+ Vol. II. p. 355. et seq. J Vol. II. p. 2 14.
^ Theophrastus says, " The Egyptian ointment was not very
strongly scented."
II Athenaeus says the revenues of Anthylla were given to the queens
of Egypt for the purchase of ointments, another term for pin-money,
lib. i. 25. Vide Corn. Nep. in vita Agesilai, and Juv. Sat. xv. 50.
^ This agrees with the jSaXapov of Theophrastus. Vide Plin.xiii. 1.
** J. Pollux, Onom. vi. xix. -ff Theophr. De odoribus.
CHAP. X. OINTMENTS. 379
that Egyptian ointments were colourless ; but we
can readily account for this variance of opinion, by
supposing that they had in view two different
qualities * : which is further proved, by the fact of
our finding them both preserved at Thebes.
Ointment was frequently kept in alabastert bot-
tles, or vases, (whence these obtained, among the
Greeks, the name of alahastron^ even if made of
other materials) ; sometimes in those of the onyxt,
or other stone, glass, ivory, bone, or shells §; spe-
cimens of all of which have been discovered in the
tombs.
Strabo 1! says that the common people used the
oil of the kikki, or castor-berry for anointing them-
selves, both men and women ; the general purpose
to which it was applied being for lamps : and many
oils, as from the simsim^, olive, almond, flax,
selgam (coleseed), seemga, lettuce, and other ve-
getable productions, were extracted in Egypt.**
The custom of anointing the body is usual in hot
climates, and contributes greatly to comfort. Even
the Greeks, Romans tt, and others, whose limbs
were mostly covered with clothes, and protected
* Plin, (xiii. 3.) says " Terrarum omnium ^gyptus accommoda-
tissima unguentis." They adulterated their ointments. Plin. xiii. 1.
t Conf. Matt, xxvi. 7. " An alabaster box of very precious oint-
ment."
t Conf. Hor. iv. Od. xi. 17, " Nardi parvus onyx."
9 Hor. ii, Od. v. 23, " Unguenta de conchis."
II Strabo, lib. xvii. p. 567. Herod, ii. 94. Plin. xv. 7.
11 Sesamum orientale. ** Plin. xiii. 1.
f f Ennius tells us that, even in the time of Tarquin they had this
custom : —
" Tarquinii corpus bona foemina lavit, et unxit."
Pliny doubts when it was introduced at Home. xiii. 3.
380 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
from the dryness of the air, found the advantage of
its use ; and those whose skin was much exposed,
in consequence of their scanty clothing, as the
Etliiopians, and other inhabitants of Africa, felt the
necessity of softening and cooling the skin by the
application of oils or ointments ; and we find the
custom most prevalent among the blacks who wear
the least covering to their body.
Their principal care is bestowed upon the hair
of the head, which they are not in the habit of
shaving, except some of the upper classes among
the inhabitants of the large towns ; and the highest
ambition of the Ethiopians is to obtain a sufficient
quantity of grease, whatever kind it may be, to
cover their head, and, to run down upon the
shoulders, so as to give them a shining gloss,
which they delight in displaying as they walk in
the sun. *
The Egyptian combs were usually of wood, and
double ; one side having large, the other small
teeth ; the centre part was frequently ornamented
with carved work, and, perhaps, inlaid. They
were about four inches long, and six deep ; and
those with a single row of teeth were sometimes
surmounted with the figure of an ibex, or other
animal.
The custom of staining the eyelids and brows,
with a moistened powder of a black colour, was
common in Egypt from the earliest times ; it was
also introduced among the Jews and Romans, and
* Conf. Virg, iEn. V. 135 "jiiventus,
Nudatosque hunieros oleo perfusa nitescit."
CHAP. X. PAINTING THE EYELIDS.
381
No. 410. Combs found at Thebes.
1. Comb, with the centre part ornamented.
3. Side view of fig. 2.
4. An Ibex, supposed to have formed the top of a comb.
is retained in the East to the present clay. It is
thought to increase the beauty of the eye ; which
is made to appear larger by this external addition
of a black ring; and many even suppose the
stimulus its application gives to be beneficial to the
sight. It is made in various ways. Some use
antimony, black oxide of manganese, preparations
of lead, and other mineral substances : others the
powder, or the lamp black of burnt almonds, or
frankincense ; and many prefer a mixture of dif-
ferent ingredients.
Mr. Lane* is perfectly correct in stating that
the expression "painted her face," which Jezebel is
said to have done, when Jehu came to Jezreel, is
* Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 43.
382 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
in the Hebrew, "painted her eyes* ;" the same is
again mentioned in Jeremiah and Ezekielt; and
the lengthened form of the ancient Egyptian eye,
represented in the paintings, was probably pro-
duced, as Mr. Lane supposes, by this means.
Such is the effect described by JuvenaU,
Pliny § and other writers, who notice the custom
among the Romans. At Rome it was con-
sidered disgraceful for men to adopt it, as at
present in the East, except medicinally ; but, if we
may judge from the similarity of the eyes of men
and women in the paintings at Thebes, it appears
to have been used by both sexes among the ancient
Egyptians.
Many of these Kohl bottles have been found in
the tombs, together with the bodkin used for ap-
plying the moistened powder. They are of various
materials, usually stone, wood, or pottery, some-
times composed of two, sometimes of four and five
separate cells, apparently containing each a mixture,
differing slightly in its quality and hue, from the
other three. Many were simple round tubes,
vases, or small boxes : some were ornamented
with the figure of an ape, or monster, supposed to
* 2 Kings, ix. 30. n^ry. In our translation, " She painted her
face, and tired her head, and looked out at a window." In the margin
" put her eyes in painting."
f Ezek. xxiii. 40. " For whom thou didst wash thyself, paintedst
thine eyes, and deckedst thyself with ornaments." In Jeremiah (iv. 30.),
it is in Hebrew " eyes."
X Juv. Sat. ii. 93. : —
" lUe supercilium madida fuligine tactum
Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes
Attollens oculos."
$ Plin. Ep. vi. 2.
PINS AND NEEDLES.
383
5 6 7
No. 411. Boxes, or bottles, for holding the A'oA/, for staining the eyelids.
1. In Mr. Burton's collection, c is the bodkin for applying the Ko/il. The others are
in the museum of Alnwick Castle.
assist in holding the bottle between his arms, while
the lady dipped into it the pin, with which she
painted her eyes ; and others were in imitation of
a column made of stone, or rich porcelain of the
choicest manufacture.
Pins and needles were also among the articles of
the toilet, which have been occasionally found in the
tombs. The former are frequently of considerable
length, with large gold heads ; and some, of a dif-
ferent form, tapering gradually to a point, merely
bound with gold at the upper end, without any
projecting head, seven or eight inches in length,
appear to have been intended for arranging the
plaits or curls of hair ; like those used in Eng-
384- THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
1
No. 412. Needles, Pins, and Earrings.
1, 2, Bronze needles in the Museum of Alnwick Castle, 3 and 3| inches long. 3, Large
gold-headed pin, in the Berlin collection. 4, Another of smaller size. 5, Silver earring
in my possession, one and four tenths of an inch in diameter. 6, Gold earring in the
Berlin Museum, one and one third of an inch in diameter. 7, Another, seen from above.
land, in the days of Elizabeth, for nearly the same
purpose.
Some needles were of bronze, from three to
three and a half inches in length ; but as few have
been found, we are not able to form any opinion
respecting their general size and quality, particu-
larly of those used for fine work, which must have
been of a very minute kind.
One of the principal objects of the toilet was
the mirror. It was of mixed metal, chiefly
copper, most carefully wrought and highly po-
lished ; and so admirably did the skill of the
Egyptians succeed in the composition of metals,
that this substitute for our modern looking-glass
was susceptible of a lustre, which has even been
partially revived at the present day, in some of
those discovered at Thebes, though buried in the
earth for many centuries.
CHAP. X.
METAL MIRRORS.
385
The mirror itself was nearly round, inserted
into a handle of wood, stone, or metal, whose form
varied according to the taste of the owner. Some
presented the figure of a female, a flower, a column,
or a rod ornamented with the head of Athor, a
bird, or a fancy device ; and sometimes the face of
a typhonian monster was introduced to support the
No. 413. Metal Mirrors.
I, 3, 4, Mr. Salt's coUettion 2, From a painting at Thebes. 4, is about 11 inches high.
mirror, serving as a contrast to the features whose
beauty was displayed within it. The same kind of
metal mirror was used by the Israelites, who doubt-
less brought them from Egypt ; and the brazen
laver made by Moses for the tabernacle, was com-
posed *' of the looking-glasses of the women, which
assembled at the door of the tabernacle of the con-
gregation."*
* Exod. xxviii. 8. " He made the laver of brass, and the foot of it
of bras.s, of the looking-glasses." The word brass, " nahas," is used in
VOL. III. C C
386
THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
CHAP. X.
When walking from home, Egyptian gentle-
men frequently carried sticks, varying from three
other Metal Mirrors.
No. 414 Fig. 1, In Mr. Salt's collec- No. 415. — In the possession of Dr. Hogg.
tion ; with a wooden handle. Fig. 2,
in the M useum of Alnwick Castle.
2, and 3, show the bottom of the handle,
to which something has been fastened.
or four, to about six feet in length, some of
which were surmounted with a knob, imitating
No 416. Walking sticks found at Thebes. 2, is of cherry-wood in Mr. Salt's
collection. 3, shows the peg at the side.
a flower* ; and others with the more usual peg
Hebrew, as in Arabic, to denote copper in any form, or with any alloy.
The " looking-glass," or mirror, is in Hebrew and Arabic, mirath, or
niirah. The roots of these two words, and probably of the Coptic, are
* Wood-cut, No. 41'r./g. 4. and No. 416 a. fig. 1.
CHAP. X. WALKING STICKS. 387
projecting from one side*, some of which have been
found at Thebes. One in the possession of Mr.
Salt, of the latter form, was of cherry\ wood, and
only three feet three inches long ; and those I
have seen with the lotus head were generally about
the same length. Others appear to have been
much longer ; the sculptures represent them at
1 2 3 4
No. 417. Priests and other persons of rank walking with sticks. Thebes.
least six feet ; and one brought to England by Mr.
Madox was about five feet in length.
On entering a house they left their stick in the
hall, or at the door ; and poor men were some-
times employed to hold the sticks of the guests
who had come to a party on foot, being re-
warded by the master of the house, for their trouble,
with a trifling compensation in money, with tlieir
dinner, or a piece of meatt to carry to their family.
The name of each person was frequently written on
* Wood-cut, No.417./g. 2. and 416«./g. 2.
•f- According to Pliny, (xv. 23.) this tree was introduced into Italy
by LucuUus, from Pontiis, and thence went to Britain. He says it
would not grow in Egypt, and it is not now found there; but is not
a species buiigcnous in the north of our island ?
X Vide Plate \2.fig. 10. Vol. II.
C C 2
388 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
his Stick*, in hieroglyphics (instances of which
I have seen in those found at Thebes) ; for which
reason a hard wood was preferred, as the acacia,
which seems to have been more generally used
than any other.
BATHS. DOCTORS.
We have little knowledge of the nature of their
baths, but as they were forbidden in deep mourn-
ing to indulge in themt, we may conclude they
were considered as a luxury, as well as a necessary
comfort.
The only instance I have met with in the paint-
ings is in a tomb at Thebes, where a lady is repre-
sented with four attendants, who wait upon her,
and perform various duties.
One removes the jewellery and clothes she has
taken off, or suspends them to a stand in the
apartment ; another pours water from a vase over
her head, as the third rubs her arms and body
with her open hands ; and a fourth seated near
her, holds a sweet scented flower to her nose,
and supports her as she sits. The same subject is
treated nearly in the same manner on some of the
Greek vases, the water being poured over the
bather who kneels, or is seated on the ground.
Warmt as well as cold baths were used by the
Egyptians, though for ordinary ablutions cold
water § was preferred ; and both were probably
recommended and taken medicinally, when occa-
sion required.
* Conf. Num. xvii. 2. " Write thou every man's name upon
his rod." f Diod. i. 72.
J Diodorus (i. 84-.) says they were even kept for the sacred animals
^ Herodot. ii. .37,
CHAP. X.
THE BATH.
389
The Egyptians paid great attention to health,
and ''so wisely," says Herodotus*, "was medi-
cine managed by them, that no doctor was per-
* Herodot. ii. H-i.
c c 3
390 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
mitted to practise any but his own peculiar
branch. Some were oculists, who only studied
diseases of the eye ; others attended solely to
complaints of the head; others to those of the teeth ;
some again confined themselves to complaints of
the intestines ; and others to secret and internal
maladies : accoucheurs being usually, if not always,
women. *
They received certain salaries from the public
treasury ; and after they had studied those precepts
which had been laid down from the experience of
their predecessors, they were permitted to practise ;
and, in order to ensure their attention to the pre-
scribed rules, and to prevent dangerous experiments
being made upon patients, they were punished
if their treatment was contrary to the established
system: and the death of a person entrusted to their
care, under such circumstances, was adjudged to
them as a capital offence.t If, however, every re-
medy had been administered according to the sana-
tory law, they were absolved from blame t; and
"these provisions," says Diodorus, " were made
with the persuasion that few persons could be ca-
pable of introducing any new treatment superior to
what had been sanctioned and approved by the skill
of old practitioners."
Though paid by government as a body, it was
* As at present in Egypt. Vide Exod. i. 15.
-)- Pliny observes, there is no law to punish their ignorance at Rome,
and that a physician is the only man who can kill another with impu-
nit}'. " Nulla praeterea lex, quee puniat inscitiam capitalem, nullum
exemplum vindictae. Discunt periculis nostris, et experimenta per
mortes agunt : medicoque tantum hominem occidisse impunitas summa
est." Plin. xxix. 1.
t Diod. i. 82.
CHAP. X. DOCTORS* SALARIES AND FEES. 391
not illegal to receive fees for their advice and
attendance; and demands could be made in every
instance, except on a foreign journey, and on
military service, when patients were visited free of
expense.*
The principal mode adopted by the Egyptians
for preventing illness was attention to regimen and
diet; " being persuaded that the majority of diseases
proceed from indigestion and excess of eating ; "
and they had frequent recourse to abstinence,
emetics, slight doses of medicine, and other simple
means of relieving the system t, which some per-
sons were in the habit of repeating every two or
three days. " Those wlio live in the corn country,"
as Herodotus terms itt, were particular for their
attention to health. " During three successive
days, every month, they submitted to a regular
course of medicine ;" from the conviction that ill-
ness was wont to proceed from some irregularity
in diet ; and if preventives were ineffectual, they
had recourse to suitable remedies, adopting a mode
of treatment very similar to that mentioned by
Diodorus.
The employment of numerous drugs in Egypt has
been mentioned by sacred and profane writers ; and
the medicinal properties of many herbs which grow
in the deserts, particularly between the Nile and
Red Sea, are still known to the Arabs ; though
their application has been but imperfectly recorded
* Diod. loc, cit.
•j- " Oipantvovai ra ffujfiara /cXuffjuoif, /cat vriffreiaig, kcu tfitroiQ." —
Diod. loc. cit.
t Herodot. ii. 77.
C C i
392 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
and preserved. " O virgin, daughter of Egypt,"
says Jeremiah*, *' in vain shalt thou use many
medicines, for thou shalt not be cured." Homer,
in the Odysseyt, describes the many valuable
medicines given by Polydamna, the wife of Thonis,
to Helen while in Egypt, " a country whose
fertile soil produces an infinity of drugs, some salu-
tary and some pernicious ; where each physician,
possesses knowledge above all other men;" and
Pliny makes frequent mention of the productions
of that country, and their use in medicine.
He also notices the physicians of Egypt t ; and
as if their number § was indicative of the many
maladies to which the inhabitants were subject,
he observes, that it was a country productive of
numerous diseases. In this, however, he does not
agree with Herodotus ||, who affirms that, "after
the Libyans, there are no people so healthy as the
Egyptians, which may be attributed to the inva-
riable nature of the seasons in their country." In
Pliny's time, the introduction of luxurious habits
and excess had probably wrought a change in the
people ; and to the same cause may be attributed
the numerous complaints among the Romans,
*' unknown to their fathers and ancestors."^
The same author tells us, that the Egyptians exa-
mined the bodies after death, to ascertain the nature
of the diseases of which they had died * * ; and we can
* Jerem. Ixvi. 1 1.
f Homer, Od. iv. 229. { Plin. xxvi. 1.
§ Herodotus says, " Every place is full of doctors," in Egypt, ii. 84.
II Herodot. i. 77. ^ Plin. loc. cit.
** Plin. xix. 3. " In ^gypto, regibus corpora niortuoruni ad scrutan-
dos morbos insecantibus."
CHAP. X. THEIR SKILL KNOWN ABROAD. iJQS
readily believe that a people, so far advanced in civil-
isation and the principles of medicine, as to assign
each physician his peculiar branch, would have re-
sorted to this effectual method of acquiring know-
ledge and experience, for the benefit of the commu-
nity.
It is evident that the medical skill of the
Egyptians was well known even in foreign and
distant countries ; and we learn from Herodotus*,
that Cyrus and Darius both sent to Egypt for
medical men. But though their physicians are
often mentioned by Herodotus and other writers,
the only indication of medical attendance occurs
in the paintings of Beni Hassan, where a doctor
and a patient are twice represented.
b*. — »
3
No. 418. Doctors and patients. Baii Hassan.
Diodorus tells ust, that dreams were regarded
in Egypt with religious reverence, and the prayers
* Herodot. iii. 1. and 132.
-j- Diodorus' account of learning remedies from dreams, is not quite
consistent with the positive observations they took so much care to
make. The advocates for animal magnetism may perhaps see it in this
passage of the historian. . . .i. 25.
394 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
of the devout were often rewarded by the gods,
with an indication of the remedies their suffer-
ings required ; but this and magic* were only a
last resource, when the skill of the physician had
been baffled, and all hopes of their recovery were
lost : and a similar superstitious feeling induced
them to offer ex votos in their temples for the
same purpose.
They consisted of various kinds. Some per-
sons promised a certain sum for the maintenance
of the sacred animals, belonging to the deity whose
interposition they solicited ; which, in the case
of children, was decided by weighing a certain
portion of the hair of their head, '* either all, or
half, or a third t," shaved expressly for the pur-
pose ; and as soon as the cure had been effected,
they accomplished their vow by giving an equal
weight of silver to the curators.
These persons occasionally visited different parts
of the country, carrying with them the banners of
their respective deities; and the credulity of the pea-
sants being frequently induced to solicit their aid,
and to barter the doubtful assistance of the god for
the real rewards lavished on his artful servants,
much money was collected by them. And so pro-
fitable was it, that neither the change of religion,
nor the simplicity of Islam, have been able to
discard the custom : and the guardians of the
shekh's tombs, in like manner, send their emissaries
with flags and drums to different parts of the
* Wisdom of Solomon, xvii. 8.
f Herodot. ii. 65.
CHAP. X.
EXVOTOS.
395
country, to levy contributions from the credulous,
in return for the promised assistance of their wellee,
or patron saint.
After the cure was effected, they frequently
suspended a model of the restored part, in the
temple of the god, whose interposition they had
invoked ; precisely in the same manner as in the
shekh's tombs of modern Egypt, and in the Roman
catholic chapels of Italy and other countries, conse-
crated to the Virgin, or a saint ; and ears, eyes, dis-
torted arms, and other members, were dedicated as
memorials of their gratitude and superstition.
No. 419. Exvotos.
1, Ivory hand, in Mr. Salt's collection. 2, Stone tablet, dedicated to Amunre, for the
recovery of a complaint in the ear : found at Thebes. 3, An ear of terra cotta in my
possession, from Thebes.
Sometimes travellers, who happened to pass by
a temple, inscribed a votive sentence on the walls,
to indicate their respect for the deity, and solicit
his protection during their journey ; the complete
formula of which contained the adoration (pros-
kunema) of the writer, with the assurance that he
396 THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. CHAP. X.
had been mindful of his wife, his family, and friends ;
and the reader of the inscription was sometimes
included in a share of the blessings it solicited.
The date of the king's reign, and the day of the
month were also added, with the profession and
parentage of the writer. The complete formula of
the proskunema was as follows : *' The adoration
of Caius Capitolinus, son of Flavius Julius, of the
fifth troop of Theban horse, to the goddess Isis,
with ten thousand names. And I have been
mindful of (or have made an adoration for) all
those who love me, and my consort, and children,
and all my household, and for him who reads this.
In the year 12 of the emperor Tiberius Caesar,
the 15th of Paiini.
The Egyptians, according to Pliny *, claimed
the honour of having invented the art of curing
diseases. Indeed, the study of medicine and
surgery appears to have commenced at a very
early period in Egypt, since Athothes, the second
king of the country, is stated to have written
upon the subject of anatomy t; and the schools of
Alexandria continued till a late period to enjoy
the reputation, and display the skill, they had in-
herited from their predecessors. Hermes t was
said to have written six books on medicine, the
first of which related to anatomy § ; and the various
recipes, known to have been beneficial, were re-
* Plin. vii. 36.
f Vide Vol. I. p. 25.
X Hermes and Athothes nuiy have been confoumletl, or they may be
in this instance the same person. The god Hermes, or Tiioth, generally
implied intellect. <> Clem. Alex. Strom, vi.
CHAP. X. EMBALMING. 397
corded, with their pecuHar cases, in the memoirs of
physic, inscribed among the laws ah'eady alluded
to ; which were deposited in the principal temple
of the place, as at Memphis in that of Pthah, or
Vulcan.
The embalmers were probably members of the
medical profession, since the knowledge, required
for that purpose, appears to be connected with their
peculiar studies ; and the Bible expressly states,
that '* the physicians* embalmed" Jacob. This
part, however, belongs more properly to the fu-
neral ceremonies of the Egyptians, into which I do
not here intend to enter; reserving that portion of
my subject to a future opportunity, and to a work,
whose less contracted dimensions will enable me
to introduce the paintings connected with it, on a
more suitable scale than these pages will permit ;
I shall also take advantage of the same opportunity
of entering more fully into the mythology of the
Egyptians, and the ceremonies connected with
their religion.
* Gen. 1. 2.
Topographical Plan of the Pyramids of Geezeh.
A, Entrance to the great pyramid.
B, Entrance to the second pyramid.
C C, Long pits, by some supposed for mixing
the mortar.
D, Pyramid of the daughter of Cheops
(Herodotus, ii. 126.).
E, Pavement of black stones (basaltic trap),
the same as found on the causeways of the
pyramids of Saqqdra.
F, Remains of masonry.
G, Round inclosures of crude brick, of Arab
date, at N. E. angle of this pyramid.
H, Tombs of individuals, with deep pits.
1, The tomb of numbers.
K, Two inclined passages, meeting under
ground, apparently once belonging to a
small pyramid that stood over them.
L L, The rock is here cut to a level surface.
M, A narrow and shallow trench cut in the
rock.
N, A square space cut in the rock, probably
to receive and support the corner stone of
the casing of the pyramid.
P, Here stood a tomb which has received
the title of the Temple of Osiris.
Q, Tomb of trades, to west of tombs H.
K, A pit cased with stone, of modern date.
S, The third pyramid.
T, Three small pyramids.
U, V, Ruined buildings, whose original use
it is now difficult to determine.
W W W, Fragments of stone, arranged in
the manner of a wall.
X, A few palms and sycamores, with a well.
Y, Southern stone causeway.
Z, Northern causeway, repaired by the Ca-
liphs.
a, Tombs cut in the rock.
b, Masonry.
c, Black stones.
rf rf. Tombs cut in the rock.
c, The sphinx.
/, Pits, probably unopened.
g. Pits.
A, Stone ruin on a rock.
i, Doorway, or passage, through the cause-
way.
h, A grotto in the rock.
/, Inclined causeway, part of Y.
tn, n. Tombs in the rock.
o. Some hieroglyphics on the rock.
p. Tombs cut in the scarp of the rock.
q. Stone wall.
r. Steps cut in the rock, near the N. w. angle
of the great pyramid.
s, t. Magnetic south, in 1832 and 1836, cor-
responding to M N ; T N being " true
north."
The names 1. and 2. are of king Ergamenes,
mentioned by Diodorus, lib. iii. s, 6., and
another Ethiopian monarch, found at
Dakkeh.
APPENDIX A.
PRINCIPAL OBJECTS TO BE VISITED IN A TOUR UP THE
NILE.
In order to render this book more useful to travellers in
Egypt, I shall introduce the notes I had drawn up for some
friends, who required a brief statement of the principal objects
worthy of a visit, on the Nile, without having to seek their order
and position in the numerous pages of voluminous books of
travels ; referring the reader, who wishes for a more detailed
account of them, to my Egypt and Thebes.
At Alexandria are Pompey's pillar, with its inscription, of the
time of Diocletian ; the obelisks ; some traces of the ancient
streets •, and, along the coast to the west, the catacombs, of
Greek time ; and, to the east, beyond the French lines, the
ancient Roman station, where the English and French armies
engaged.
Between Alexandria and Cairo, a journey of three days, the
site of Sa'xs, now Sa-el-Hagar ; its large walls, the lake men-
tioned by Herodotus, and brick houses.
Near Cairo, Heliopolls, now Matareeh, its obelisk of
Osirtasen I., remains of the walls and houses ; the station of
Egyptian Babylon, and the mosk of Amer, at old Cairo; the
pyramids of Geezeh (Vide the plan), of Saqqara, and Dashoor.
At Saqqara is a stone arch of the time of Psamaticus II., the
oldest known. It is in a tomb, cut in the face of the rock, about
east south east of the principal pyramid. At Mit-raheny, a
large colossus of Remeses II. ; mounds of Memphis ; some
fragments of statues, and remains of building.
On east bank, eight miles to the south of Cairo, quarries of Maas-
ara, from which the stone used for part of the casing of the pyra-
mids was taken. Some hieroglyphic tablets, in one of which oxen
are represented drawing a stone placed on a sledge. (Vide
wood-cut, No. 389.) A little beyond the modern village is an
400 APPENDIX.
inclined road, which leads from the quarries to the river. Thirty
miles further to the south, on the same bank, is Atfeeh ; mounds
of Aphroditopolis ; no ruins. False pyramid on opposite bank.
Three miles beyond, El Feshn, and on east bank, remains of
crude brick ; the walls of an ancient village, called El Heebee,
and some hieroglyphics.
From Benisooefis the road to the Fyoom, which, when the Nile is
low, maybe visited conveniently. A brick pyramid at Illahoon,
another at El Hawara, and vestiges of the labyrinth. Obelisk
at Biggig. Ruins on and near the lake Mceris, and at Qasr Kha-
roon.
From Aboogirgeh is the shortest road to Bahnasa (Oxy-
rinchus) ; mounds ; no ruins. Gebel e'Tayr, north end, grotto
or rock temple, called Babayn ; convent further to the south.
Eight miles below Minyeh, is Tehneh (Acoris), on east bank.
A Greek Ptolemaic inscription on the face of the cliff; tombs
hewn in the rock, with small inscriptions at the doors : Roman
figures in high relief, on the upper part of the rock ; some hie-
roglyphic tablets ; quarries on the top of the mountain ; a
tank, &c.
Same (east bank), seven miles above Minyeh, Kom ahmar,
some grottoes, and ruins of an old town. Nine miles further, east
bank, Beni Hassan ; very fine grottoes, with curious paintings ;
and about a mile and a half further, a grotto, or rock temple, of
Pasht (Bubastis, or Diana) ; the Speos Artemidos. Cat mum-
mies in the ravine.
Antinoe, now Shekh Abadeh, few remains of the town ; a
theatre, the principal streets, baths, &c. ; outside the town, on
the east, is the hippodrome. The grottoes in the mountain are
unsculptured, and have some Christian inscriptions. A little
to the north of Antinoe are the remains, apparently, of Besa,
scarcely worthy of a visit.
At El Bersheh, a grotto on the mountain, in which a colossus
is represented on a sledge, ( Vide wood-cut, No. 390.) At Osh-
moonayn, west bank, no longer any remains of Hermopolis
Magna. At Gebel Toona, a mountain skirting the desert to the
west, are mummy pits, a tablet of hieroglyphics, and statues in
high relief At Mellawee, and at Tanoof, (Tanis superior,)
APPENDIX. 401
mounds, but no ruins. At Sbayda, at corner of mountains on
east bank, crude brick walls, and some grottoes.
At Shekh Said, the mountains recede to the eastward,
leaving the river ; and a little beyond is the village of Tel el
Amarna, to the north of which are the remains of a small town,
and to the south, the ruins of a city, which I suppose to be
Alabastron. All the stone buildings have been quite destroyed,
but some of the brick houses remain. Near the crude brick
towers of the temple are the largest houses. ( Vide plan, Plate
VI. Vol.11, p. 106.) To the east are several fine grottoes in the
face of the mountain, with curious sculptures; and on the sum-
mit of it is an ancient alabaster quarry.
Six miles below Manfaloot, at el Haryib, ruins of an old town,
in a ravine of the Gebel Aboolfaydee ; numerous dog and cat
mummies. Near el Maabdeh, opposite Manfaloot, crocodile
mummies in chambers of great extent in the mountain.
At E'Sioot (Lycopolis), the capital of Upper Egypt, grottoes;
wolf mummies : the modern cemetery is prettily laid out. Gow
(Antaeopolis), a few stones of the temple, close to the river;
some grottoes at the corner of the mountain, to the north,
below Gow, but not containing good sculpture. Shekh Heree-
dee, small grottoes ; Roman statue at the base of the moun-
tain, cut out of a piece of rock. The snake of Shekh Hereedee
la still supposed to perform cures.
To the west of Soohag, near the corner of mountains, old town
of Athribis ; a Greek inscription in the ruined temple ; grottoes
in the mountain, and to the north is the white monastery, or
Dayr Amba Shnoodee. Nearly opposite Soohag is E'Khmim
(Panopolis) ; Greek inscription of the temple of Pan ; and
some remains of other stone buildings.
Mensheeh (Ptolemai's Hermii), west bank. Eight miles
above E'Khmim, remains of a stone quay. From Girgeh go
to Abydus (now Arabatel matfoon), three hours' ride, and send
on the boat to Bellianeh, returning to the boat in the evening
at Bellianeh, two hour's ride ; or, coming down the river, stop at
Bellianeh, and send on the boat to Girgeh. At Abydus, two
temples, and many tombs.
How (Diospolis parva), has very few remains, of Ptolemaic
or Roman time. In mounds at the edge of the desert, a mile
VOL. III. D D
402 APPENDIX.
and a lialf south of How, some tombs ; one, of a certain
Dionysius, son of one Ptolemy, has some sculpture.
Qasr e'Syad (Chenoboscion), remains of a quay ; about one
mile beyond the eastein mouth of the canal of this village are
some very ancient grottoes, with kings' names. ( F?V/e wood-cut,
No. 381.) Dendera (Tentyris), opposite Qeneh ; two temples,
inscriptions, zodiac, &c. Qeneh is famous for its manufacture
of porous jars. From it roads lead to Kossayr on the Red Sea.
Qoft (Coptos) ; ruins of the old town, and of a temple ; a
Christian church ; canals, &:c. ; at the village of el Qala, to the
north, is a small Roman Egyptian temple.
Qoos (Apollinopolis parva) ; no more ruins left; at a well on
the north of the town, is a Ptolemaic monolith, with hieroglyphics,
converted into a tank ; and a few stone remains of early time, in
the plain to the west, near a Shekh's tomb. Thebes (Diospolis
magna) , on the east bank, Karnak and Luqsor ; on the west,
the tombs of the kings, private tombs, several temples, colossi
of the plain, &c. ; for these I refer the reader to my Egypt and
Thebes.
Erment (Hermonthis), west bank; temple and early
Christian church. Tuot, or E'Selemeeh (Tuphium); on east
bank Ptolemaic tem[)le, much ruined, and concealed by the
hovels of the peasants. Gebelayn, i. e. " the two hills," a
small ancient town in ruins, and grottoes, not worthy of a
visit. At Tofnees and Asfoon, mounds of ancient towns, no
ruins.
Esneh (Latopolis), fine portico, zodiac, and quay. At E'dayr,
three miles to the north of Esneh, remains of a small temple of
the Ptolemies and Caesars, lately destroyed. Thirteen miles
from Esneh, near El Qenan, ruins of a quay, on west bank ; and
three miles further, a small stone pyramid; opposite the quay is
the junction of the limestone and sandstone. Four miles beyond,
on east bank, is El Kab (Eilethyas) ; ruins of a very ancient town ;
the temples lately destroyed : curious grottoes in the mountain ;
and a short distance up the valley, are three small temples. In
the bed of the ravine are ponds encrusted with natron.
Edfoo (Apollinopolis magna), two temples. Eleven miles above
Edfoo, and on east bank, remains of an old town, on face of hill,
fortified with towers of Arab construction. Silsilis (now Hagar
APPENDIX. 403
Silsili), quarries of sandstone, used for building the temples of
Upper Egypt; tablets, and grottoes. Kom onibo (Ombos) ;
two temples ; ancient stone gateway in a crude brick wall on
the east side of the enclosure of the temples ; houses burnt.
At E'Sooan (Syene) ruins of small temple of Roman date ;
some columns; Saracen wall, and Cufic tombstones; granite
quarries; in one of which is a broken obelisk; Latin inscription
of Caracalla, near anolher quarry ; road to Philse, and wall ;
numerous hieioglyphic tablets on the rocks. Island of Eleph-
antine ; opposite the projecting rocks of E'Sooan, is the Nilo-
meter, which is a staircase, with Greek inscriptions, relating to
the rise of the Nile. Granite gateway, bearing the name of
Alexander, the son of Alexander the Great.
At the northern end of the catai*act is the island of Sehayl.
Few vestiges of a temple; hieroglyphic tablets on the rocks.
Go from E'Sooan to Sehtiyl in a boat, and ride to Philae. At
Philae temples and ruins. Island of Biggeh, opposite Philae, to
the west, ruined temple, tablets, &c.
NUBIA.
Dabdde (Parembole), temple, west bank. Kerdassy, ruins
and quarries. Tafa (Taphis), two small ruins, and stone en-
closures. Kalabshee (Talmis), large temple ; quarries ; and, on
hill behind it, to the northward, a small but interesting temple,
called Bayt el Wcllee, cut in the rock, of the time of Remeses II.
Dandoor, temple. Gerf Hos^ayn (Tutzis), temple cut in the
rock, of the time of Remeses II.
Dakkeh (Pselcis) ; temple of Ptolemaic and Roman date. It
has also the names of two Ethiopian princes *, Ergamun, or
Ergamenes (mentioned by Diodorus, iii. 6., as a contemporary
of Ptolemy Pliiladelphus), and Ataramun ? ; many Greek inscrip-
tions. Opposite Dakkeh, ruins of Contra Pselcis, or of Meta-
compso.
Corte (Corti) ; few remains. Maharraka, or Oofideena, ruins
of Hierasycaininon ; style bad, and all of late date : Isis is repre-
ented under the sacred Jig tree. Sabooa ; temple of the time of
Remeses II., with avenue of sphinxes; the adytum is cut in the
* Vide the wood-cut in page 398.^gs. 1. 2. 3. and 4.
40-4 APPENDIX.
rock, the rest built. Hassaia, or Amada, a temple of Thothmes,
ancient ; nearly opposite to it is Dayr or Dirr, on east bank, the
capital of Nubia, which has a temple, cut in the rock, of the
time of Ilemeses II.
Ibreem (Primis parva) ; part of the ancient wall on south
side of town ; remains of a stone building amidst the houses;
some small grottoes below the town, near the river. Aboo-
simbel, two temples, cut in the rock, the finest Egyptian monu-
ments out of Thebes : they are of the time of Remeses II.
At Ferayg, nearly opposite, on east bank, a small temple in the
rock. Farras, on west bank, few remains ; grottoes, with Coptic
inscriptions, some distance from the river. Wadee Halfeh ;
remains of three buildings, on west bank ; fine view of the
second cataract from a rock on the same bank, a short walk to
the south of Wadee Halfeh.
A day and a half beyond Wadee Halfeh are the two small
temples of Samneh, and the third cataract.
The distances from the Mediterranean to the second cataract
are as follow : —
From Rosetta to Cairo - - about 110 miles. /4 -
Cairo to Benisooef - - - - 83 ' ,
Benisooef to Minyeh - - - - S5 -S" ^ '•■
Minyeh to E'Sioot - - - -106$^%
E'Sioot to Girgeh - - - - 97 ^ ''
Girgeh to Qeneh - - - - 73 M ,
Qeneh to Thebes - - - - - 4:9 ^ ^ "i.
Thebes to Esneh ... 38 3 2.
Esneh to E'Sooan . , - - lOO ^ "^ ,
E'Sooan to Wadee Halfeh - - - 219 ^1 if '-^
Total from Rosetta to Wadee Halfeh 960 miles
les. (j^^
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